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1 



A MANUAL 



PHARMACY AND DISPENSING 



BY 

A. B. STEVENS, Ph.C, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF PHARMACY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; MEMBER OF THE COM- 
MITTEE FOR THE REVISION OF THE UNITED STATES PHARMACOPOEIA, AND 
ALSO OF THE COMMITTEE FOR THE REVISION OF THE NATIONAL 
formulary; AUTHOR OF ARITHMETIC OF PHARMACY 



Illustrates witb 150 Engravings 



LEA & FEBIGER 

PHTLADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 
1909 



r V 



Entered according; to Act of Congress, in the year 1909, by 

LEA & FEBIGER 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress. All rights reserved. 



m 2/^ 1909 I 



C!a, " 
AUG 



PREFACE. 



This work is intended as a text-book for students, and 
accordingly an effort has been made to secure clear- 
ness, especially in Part I, and at the same time to avoid 
superfluous matter. Hence, methods and apparatus 
used only in manufacturing houses have either been 
omitted entirely, or at most casually mentioned. 

The same plan has been followed in preparing Part 
II. When treating of pharmacopoeial methods, the 
author has endeavored to avoid useless repetition, and, 
therefore, the matter may be considered as explanatory 
notes upon official preparations. For details of methods 
the student is referred to the Pharmacopoeia and the 
National Formulary. These books should always be at 
hand when studying this part of the text. 

Part III treats primarily of the prescription. While 
dispensing receives some attention, the real information, 
showing the fundamental principles upon which the 
work of dispensing rests, is given under the various 
subjects in Part II. The author has long been of the 
opinion that pharmaceutical chemistry or the chemical 
compounds of the Pharmacopoeia should form a separate 
work, hence these subjects have not been included in 
the present edition. 



IV 



PREFACE 



While conversant with all subjects mentioned in 
the present treatise, the author has earnestly desired to 
gather from various sources all that may prove most 
helpful and inspiring to the student of pharmacy. In 
grateful acknowledgment of assistance received in this 
direction, he mentions the names of such colleagues 
and fellow workers as Messrs. Remington, Caspari, 
Coblenz, MacEwen, Scoville, and Beal, whose able and 
scholarly works he has freely consulted. 

A. B. S. 



CONTENTS. 



Introduction 17 



PART I. 

CHAPTER I. " 
Metrology 21 

Origin and Development. Systems in Present Use. Apothe- 
caries' and Avoirdupois Weights. Wine and Imperial Fluid 
Measure. Metric Weights and Measures. Approximate 
Equivalents. Balances. Graduated Measures. 

CHAPTER II. 

Specific Gravity 46 

Pycnometers. Hydrometers. Plummet, or Loaded C}dinder. 
Specific Gravity Balances. Specific Gravity of Liquids and 
Solids Heavier and Lighter than Water. Specific Volume 
of Liquids. 

CHAPTER III. 

Heat 66 

Fuels. Alcohol, Gas, Gasoline, etc. Alcohol Stoves. Gas 
Stoves and Burners. Thermometers. Melting Points. 
Boiling Point. 



vi CONTENTS 



CHAPTER IV. 

Methods of Securing Different Degrees of Tem- 
perature 81 

Water Baths. Steam Baths. Salt Baths. Glycerin and Oil 
Baths. Sand Baths. Air Baths. Thermostat. 

CHAPTER V. 

Vaporization 87 

Evaporation. Granulation. 

CHAPTER VI. 
Distillation 91 

Retorts. Condensers. Cutting and Bending Glass Tubes. 
Steam Distillation. Fractional Distillation. Pharmaceu- 
tical Stills. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Sublimation 105 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Desiccation. Exsiccation. Calcination. Carboniza- 
tion. Incineration. Torrefaction . . 107 

CHAPTER IX. 

COLATION AND FILTRATION .... 109 

Strainers. Filters and Methods of Folding. Funnels. Con- 
tinuous Filtration. Hot Filtration. Rapid Filtration. 

CHAPTER X. 

Decantation 124 

Separation of Immiscible Solvents. Siphons. Separators. 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER XI. 

Clarification and Decolorization . . 128 

CHAPTER XII. 

Precipitation 130 

Physical Character of Precipitates. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Comminution 134 

Contusion. Trituration. Pulverization by Intervention. Levi- 
gation. Mills. Sifting. Elutriation. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Solution 147 

Circulatory Displacement. Determination of Solubilities. Lysi- 
meter. Immiscible Solvents. Solution of Gases. Percent- 
age Solutions. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Extraction ... . . . 156 

Maceration. Digestion. Percolation. Repercolation. Con- 
tinuous Percolation. Pressure Percolation. Expression. 
Drug Presses. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Crystallization 169 

Water of Crystallization. Interstitial Water. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Dialysis 172 



viii CONTENTS 

PAET II. 

PRACTICAL PHARMACY 

Introduction 175 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Waters 177 

Aromatic. Medicated. Preservation. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Solutions 180 

CHAPTER XX. 
Infusions and Decoctions . . . 194 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Honeys, Mucilages, and Mixtures . . 199 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Emulsions 203 

Natural and Artificial. Emulsifiers. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

Syrups 210 

Preparation and Preservation. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

Vinegars and Wines . . . .219 

! CHAPTER XXV. 

Elixirs 222 



CONTENTS ix 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

Spirits 225 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

Tinctures 228 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Fluidextracts 236 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

Extracts 248 

CHAPTER XXX. 

Oleoresins and Resins .... 254 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

Collodions 257 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

Glycerites 259 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 
Liniments and Oleates .... 262 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 
Ointments and Cerates .... 266 

CHAPTER XXXV. 

Plasmas, Pastes, and Poultices . . . 275 



X CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Plasters 279 



Plaster Mulls. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

Suppositories 283 

Moulds. Machines and Methods of Manufacture. 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Pencils ...... 294 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

Powders 296 

Dividers. Konseals. Triturations. Oil Sugars. 

CHAPTER XL. 

Pills 308 

Pill Coating. Capsules. Capsule Fillers. 

CHAPTER XLI. 

Tablets 329 

Compressed Tablets. Hypodermic Tablets. Tablet Triturates. 

CHAPTER XLII. 

Troches and Confections .... 338 

CHAPTER XLIII. 

Gauze and Cotton 342 



CONTENTS xi 

CHAPTER XLIV. 

Alkaloids and Drug Assay . . . 344 
Volumetric Assay. Indications. Assay Methods. 

CHAPTER XLV. 

Notes on Assay Methods for Volatile Oils . 366 



PART III. 

DISPENSING. 

CHAPTER XLVI. 

The Prescription 371 

Prescription Writing. 

CHAPTER XLVIL 
Synopsis of Prescription Latin . . 376 
Latin Abbreviations Used in Prescription Writing. 

CHAPTER XLVIII. 

Dispensing 395 

CHAPTER XLIX. 

Incompatibilities 404 



PHARMACY. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

Pharmacy is the science and art of preparing, com- 
pounding, preserving, and dispensing medicines. The 
term pharmacy is also applied to the place where the 
practice of pharmacy is conducted. 

A pharmacopoeia is a book describing medicinal 
substances, tests for strength, identity, and purity. It 
also contains formulas for the manufacture of various 
preparations. Civilized nations have either adopted 
a pharmacopoeia of their own, or that of some other 
nation on whom they are dependent or to whom they 
are closely related. All pharmacopoeias except that 
of the United States are issued by their respective 
governments. 

The United States Pharmacopoeia is issued by the 
authority of a convention composed of delegates from 
incorporated medical and pharmaceutical associations, 
societies, schools, and colleges; also from the American 
Chemical Society, the army, navy, and marine hospital 
service. The convention meets in Washington, D. C, 
on the second Tuesday in May of each year the numeral 
of which ends in zero. The convention elects a com- 
2 



IS INTRODUCTORY 

mittee called the Committee of Revision, which com- 
pletely revises the book and prepares it for publication. 
The convention also elects a Board of Trustees, who 
have charge of all business affairs connected with the 
revision and publication of the Pharmacopoeia. The 
medicinal substances are arranged alphabetically ac- 
cording to their Latin names. The English name 
follows the Latin name. Common synonyms appear 
in the index only. The student should never take the 
Pharmacopoeia at second hand, but should study the 
original, reading the introductory notes and the his- 
torical introduction, and carefully studying the general 
arrangement. An accurate knowledge of the tables is 
desirable and helpful. 

The National Formulary consists of formulas for the 
preparation of medicinal substances not in the Pharma- 
copoeia but more or less used in various parts of the 
United States. It is published by the American Phar- 
maceutical Association, and is revised by a committee 
appointed by the council of the Association. The 
Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary have been 
adopted by the United States Government as legal 
standards for "The Food and Drugs Act." The 
latest editions of these books should form a part of 
the working library of every pharmacist and every 
student of pharmacy. 

A dispensatory is the pharmacist's dictionary, contain- 
ing general information upon official and unofficial 
material alike. The National Standard Dispensatory 
and the United States Dispensatory are in general use, 
nd every progressive pharmacist should own and dili- 



INTRODUCTORY 19 

gently use one of them. King's American Dispensatory 
is intended especially for the use of the eclectic physician. 
Professor Beal in his work on Prescription Practice 
and General Dispensing has given an excellent list 
of text-books and periodicals. The pharmaceutical 
student should early form the habit of reading phar- 
maceutical literature and noting important articles. 
These notes may be arranged in the form of a card 
catalogue, a possession which increases in value and 
usefulness with increasing years. 



PART I 



CHAPTER I. 

METROLOGY. 

Metrology is the science which treats of weights and 
measures. It includes measures of extension, volume, 
and weight. 

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT. 

At the present time all systems of weights and 
measures are founded upon measures of extension. 
The standards selected are arbitrary and vary in differ- 
ent countries. Owing to the gradual transition now 
going on, more than one system is frequently used 
at the same time in the same country. Future genera- 
tions will doubtless see a single system (the metric) of 
weights and measures in use throughout the civilized 
world. During the early centuries different nations 
used various arbitrary standards. The finger, thumb, 
hand, palm, and forearm have each served as measures 
of length, while handfuls and pinches were measures 
of bulk. Seeds were used as standards of weight and 
measures of length. John Quincy Adams states that 



22 METROLOGY 

the pound, ounce, foot, inch, and mile are derived from 
the Romans, and through them from the Greeks, as 
all Roman weights and measures were of Hellenic 
origin. 

The yard or girth is of Saxon origin. After the 
Roman conquest it lost its meaning of girth, and the 
length of the arm of Henry the First (1100 to 1135) was 
substituted as the standard yard. In 1266 the English 
government declared that the sterling or English penny, 
round and unmutilated, should be the weight of 32 
grains of wheat, dry and taken from the middle of 
the ear. Twenty pennyweights were to make one 
ounce, 12 ounces one pound, and 8 pounds a wine 
gallon. In 1324 the consecutive length of three round, 
dry barley corns were taken as the inch, 12 of these 
inches one foot, and three feet one yard. At the close 
of the fifteenth century the weight of the silver penny 
was changed to that of 24 grains of wheat. Hence, 
we have 24 grains one pennyweight, 20 pennyweights 
one ounce, 12 ounces one pound, which is the same as 
Troy weight, which had been introduced into England 
by the Lombardy merchants at the close of the thir- 
teenth century. It is now confined to the weighing 
of gold, silver, and precious stones. 

Apothecaries' weight was probably derived from 
Troy weight, and is used in the writing and dispensing 
of prescriptions. 

Avoirdupois weight was brought into England by 
merchants at the beginning of British civilization. Its 
origin is not definitely known. Avoir du pois, to have 
weight, indicates French extraction, while the earlier 



ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 23 

spelling, averdupois, suggests Roman origin from 
aver are (middle age Latin), meaning to verify. . 

In 1618 the London College of Physicians directed 
that Troy weight be used in their first Pharmacopoeia. 
In 1736 the Royal Society attempted to reform their 
standards, and in 1760, under direction of the House of 
Commons, prepared a standard yard and a standard 
Troy pound. At last, in 1816, English scientists under- 
took to secure an indestructible standard. It was 
ascertained that the length of a pendulum vibrating 
seconds of time in a vacuum, at sea level and in the 
latitude of London, is 39.13929 inches. This furnished 
an indestructible, unchangeable standard. Hence, the 
inch was to be the standard from which all measures 
and weights (except the metric) were to be derived. 
This unit inch is described as of such length that it is 
contained 39.13929 times in the length of the described 
pendulum. 

Weights and measures of capacity were derived 
from the inch as follows: A cubic inch of distilled 
water weighed 252.458 grains in air, at 62° F., and 
30 inches barometric pressure. The Troy pound con- 
tained 5760 such grains and the avoirdupois pound 
contained 7000 grains. The Imperial gallon contained 
10 avoirdupois pounds or 70,000 grains of distilled 
water at 62° F. at normal pressure, which is about 
277.25 cubic inches. On January 1, 1826, the Imperial 
standards were legalized by Great Britain. The wine 
or fluid gallon used in the United States contains 
231 cubic inches, or 58372.2 grains, at 62° F., and at 
normal pressure. In 1827 exact copies of the Imperial 



24 METROLOGY 

standards were furnished to the United States. These 
copies consisted of a bronze yard containing 36 inches, 
a brass Troy pound weighing 5760 grains, and a brass 
avoirdupois pound of 7000 grains. In 1836 the United 
States Congress furnished the different States with 
accurate copies of these standards. 

THE SYSTEM IN PRESENT USE. 

Although weights and measures have varied in size 
to correspond with the changes in standards, the 
denominations have remained the same for centuries. 

They are as follows : 

Apothecaries' Weights (erroneously called Troy 
weight). — There are: 

20 grains in 1 scruple. 
3 scruples, or 60 grains in 1 dram. 
8 drams, or 480 grains in 1 ounce. 

Apothecaries' weights are used only in writing and 
compounding physicians' prescriptions. The quantities 
are expressed in Roman numerals and follow the 
symbols, thus; gr. xij equals 12 grains; 9iij equals 3 
scruples; 5 vn j> equals 8 drams; giiss, equals 2 \ ounces. 
The grain and the ounce are of the same value as those 
of Troy weights. 

Avoirdupois Weights. — There are: 

437.5 grains in 1 ounce. 
16 ounces, or 7000 gr., in 1 pound. 

This system is used in the United States for com- 
mercial purposes only. The fractions of an ounce 
are expressed in halves, quarters, and eighths. 



THE SYSTEM IN PRESENT USE 25 

Wine or Fluid Measure. — There are: 

60 minims in 1 fluidram. 
8 fluidrams, or 480 minims, in 1 fluidounce. 

16 fluidounces in 1 pint or octarius. 
8 pints, or 128 fl. oz., in 1 gallon or congius, which 
contains 231 cubic inches. 

The signs used in prescription writing are vt\ for 
minims, fl. 5 for fluidrams, fl. 5 for fluidounces, and 
O for pints. 

1 fl. oz. of distilled water at 15.6° weighs 455.7 grains. 

1 fl. oz. of distilled water at 25.0° weighs 454.6 grains. 

1 minim of distilled water at 15.6° weighs 0.95 grain. 

1 minim of distilled water at 25.0° weighs 0.947 grain. 

Imperial Measure. — Used in British territory only. 
There are: 

60 minims in 1 fluidram. 
8 fluidrams, or 480 minims, in 1 fl. oz. 

20 fluidounces in 1 pint. 
8 pints, or 160 fl. oz., in 1 gallon, which contains 
277.25 cubic inches. 

The names, signs, and divisions are the same as in 
wine measure. However, not one of the denominations 
is of the same value as the corresponding denomination 
in wine measure. 

1 fl. oz. of distilled water at 15.6° weighs 437.57 grains 

1 minim of distilled water at 15.6° weighs 0.9116 
grains. 

1 fl. oz. is equivalent to 0.96 of a wine ounce. 

1 pint is equivalent to 1.2 wine pints. 

1 fl. oz. of distilled water at 15.6° is equivalent to 
1.0 avoirdupois ounce. 



26 METROLOGY 

In the United States three ounces, each of different 
size, are in use, viz., the apothecaries' ounce of 480 gr., 
the avoirdupois ounce of 437.5 gr., and the fluidounce 
of 455.7 gr. But in all three systems of weights and 
measures the grain is of the same value. 

The Metric System. — The metric system of weights 
and measures is destined to become the universal 
system. Centuries may be required to accomplish 
its acceptance, but the system is steadily gaining in 
favor and its universal adoption is only a question of 
time. It is now used in scientific work, and is the 
legal standard of all civilized nations except the United 
States and Great Britain, but in both of these countries 
it is permissible by law. The metric is the only system 
recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia. 

In 1790 Prince de Talleyrand submitted to the French 
Assembly a plan for a new system of weights and 
measures having a single universal standard. The 
standards considered were the pendulum, suggested 
by Huyghens, and the proportional part of the earth's 
circumference, by Picard. His plan, with some modifi- 
cations, was approved by the Assembly August 22, 1790. 
A committee from the Academy of Science was appointed 
to select the standard. They reported in March, 1791, 
in favor of one-fourth of the meridian, and recommended 
that a ten-millionth part of it should be taken as the 
standard unit of linear measure. They also recom- 
mended that a cube representing one-tenth of this 
be accepted as the standard of weight and volume. 
Committees were appointed to determine the length 
of the meridian's arc and the weight of a standard 



THE SYSTEM IN PRESENT USE 27 

volume of distilled water in vacuum. They were also 
to construct a scale and table of weights and measures. 
Without waiting for these committees to complete 
their labors, the French Government, in 1793, passed 
a law adopting the system and requiring it to take 
immediate effect. For their standard provisional 
meter they used measurements made more than fifty 
years before. In 1799 a new meter was adopted, 
which was about 0.01 of an inch shorter than the old 
meter. The principle nations have established a 
new standard, which is the length between two lines 
drawn upon a platiniridium bar and measured at the 
temperature of melting ice. Its length is as nearly as 
possible that of the old meter, and is equal to 39.37 + 
inches. This standard is preserved in the International 
Bureau of Weights and Measures in the archives of 
France. The unit of volume is a cube of one-tenth 
of the meter, and is called a Liter. It equals 33.8149 
fluidounces. The unit of weight is the weight of 0.001 
part of a liter of distilled water at 4° C. It is called 
a Gram or Gramme, equal to 15.432 gr. Denomina- 
tions above this unit are obtained by multiplying by 
ten; those below are obtained by dividing by ten, using 
the same prefixes for measures of extensions, volume, 
and weight. The multiples are expressed by Greek 
prefixes, as, Deka, 10; Hecto, 100; Kilo, 1000; Myria, 
10,000. The subdivisions are expressed by Latin 
prefixes, as, Deci, 0.1; Centi, 0.01; Milli, 0.001. The 
abbreviations of the units and multiples should begin 
with capital letters; those for the subdivisions with small 
letters. 



28 



Metric Measures. — 



METER. 

Myriameter, Mm. =10000.0 

Kilometer, Km.= 1000.0 

Hectometer, Hm.= 100.0 

Dekameter, Dm.= 10.0 

Meter, M.= 1.0 

Decimeter, dm.= 0.1 

Centimeter, cm.= 0.01 

Millimeter, mm.= 0.001 



METROLOGY 










LITER. 






GRAM. 


Myrialiter,Ml.= 


10000.0 


Myriagram 


,Mg.= 


10000.0 


Kiloliter, Kl.= 


1000.0 


Kilogram, 


Kg.= 


1000.0 


Hectoliter,Hl.= 


100.0 


Hectogram, Hg.= 


100.0 


Dekaliter, Dl.= 


10.0 


Dekagram, 


Dg.= 


10.0 


Liter, L.= 


1.0 


Gram, 


Gm.= 


1.0 


Deciliter, dl.= 


0.1 


Decigram, 


dg.= 


0.1 


Centiliter, cl.= 


0.01 


Centigram, 


cg.= 


0.01 


Milliliter, rril.= 


0.001 


Milligram, 


mg.=^ 


0.001 



Many of the above terms are rarely used. Those 
in italics are most frequently used, and of these, the 
decigram and centigram are frequently expressed by 
an equivalent in milligrams. The milliliter is the 
cube of the centimeter, and is commonly called cubic 
centimeter, Cc. 

The micron or micromillimeter, mkm., or /*, is one- 
thousandth part of a millimeter, and is used in micros- 
copy. 

The cubic centimeter is usually considered as equiva- 
lent to a gram of distilled water, but this is true only 
when weighed in vacuo at four degrees centigrade. 
When weighed in air at 15.6° it weighs 0.998 Gm., 
and at 22° it weighs 0.9975 Gm. 



APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS. 

The following equivalents are not exact, but are 
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. When 
the equivalents of weight are given in volume it applies 
only to substances having the same specific gravity 
as water: 

1 Meter equals 39.37 inches. 

1 Gram equals 15.432 grains. 



APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS 29 

1 Gram equals 0.035 avoirdupois ounce. 

1 Gram equals 0.032 apothecaries' ounce. 

1 Cubic centimeter equals 16.23 apothecaries' minims 

1 Cubic centimeter equals 16.9 Imperial minims. 

1 Cubic centimeter equals 0.0338 apothecaries' 
fluidounce. 

1 Cubic centimeter equals 0.035 Imperial fluid- 
ounce. 

1 Grain equals 64.8 milligrams. 

1 Grain equals 1.053 apothecaries' minims. 

1 Grain equals 1.097 Imperial minims. 

1 Apothecaries' ounce equals 31.1 grams. 

1 Apothecaries' ounce equals 1.097 avoirdupois 
ounces. 

1 Apothecaries' ounce equals 1.053 fluidounces. 

1 Avoirdupois ounce equals 28.35 grams. 

1 Avoirdupois ounce equals 0.91 1 apothecaries' ounce. 

1 Avoirdupois ounce equals 0.961 fluidounce. 

1 Avoirdupois ounce equals 1 Imperial fluidounce. 

1 Avoirdupois pound equals 453.6 grams. 

1 Imperial minim equals 0.9114 grain. 

1 Imperial minim equals 0.059 cubic centimeter. 

1 Imperial fluidounce equals 28.35 cubic centi- 
meters. 

1 Imperial fluidounce equals 0.96 apothecaries' 
ounce. 

1 Imperial pint equals 567.6 cubic centimeters. 

1 Imperial gallon equals 4.541 liters. 

1 Apothecaries' minim equals 0.9493 grain. 

1 Apothecaries' minim equals 0.0613 cubic centi- 
meter. 



30 METROLOGY 

1 Apothecaries' fluidounce equals 29.57 cubic centi- 
meters. 

1 Apothecaries' fluidounce equals 1.04 avoirdupois 
ounces. 

1 Apothecaries' fluidounce equals 0.95 apothecaries' 
ounce. 

1 Apothecaries' fluidounce equals 1.04 Imperial 
fluidounces. 

1 Apothecaries' pint equals 473 cubic centimeters. 

1 Apothecaries' gallon equals 3.496 liters. 

Many other equivalents might be given, but it is 
unnecessary, as they can be obtained by moving the 
decimal point. For instance, one cubic centimeter 
equals 0.0338 of a fluidounce; hence one liter (1000 Cc.) 
equals 33.8 fluidounces. As the equivalent given is 
that of a unit quantity, any number of times the unit 
quantity may be obtained by multiplying its equivalent 
by the given amount. For example, one avoirdupois 
ounce equals 0.911 apothecaries' ounce. Therefore, 
24 avoirdupois ounces equal 24 X 0.911, or 21.864 
apothecaries' ounces. 

THE BALANCE. 

The balance, or scale, as it is commonly called, is an 
instrument for determining the relative weights of 
bodies. Scales differ in size and construction, depend- 
ing upon the purpose for which they were designed. 
Pharmaceutically, they may be divided into two classes : 
First, one employing the principle of the lever resting 
upon one or more knife-edges. The second employs 



THE BALANCE 



31 



the principle of the lever resting upon tightly stretched 
wires or bands. Those of the first class may be sub- 
divided into (1) single beam, and (2) compound beam. 

There are also two forms of the single beam balance, 
viz., those of equal and unequal arm. 

The single beam equal arm principle is used in most 
analytical and prescription balances (Fig. 1). The 



Fig. 1 




Single beam prescription balance. 

beam should be as light as possible and still be rigid. 
In the finest balances this is usually obtained by giving 
the beam the truss form (Figs. 1 and 2). In the centre 
of the beam and at right angle with it is a short a 
shaped bar of steel or agate " knife-edge." Its pro- 
jecting ends rest upon stationary supports in such a 



32 



METROLOGY 



manner that the beam may vibrate freely and also be 
lifted from its support when not in use, to prevent 
wear. The pans are suspended from similar knife- 
edges at the end of the beam. In all fine balances the 
knife-edges are of agate and vibrate on agate plains. 
The beam is so graduated that the smallest weights 
may be obtained by sliding a rider along the beam. 
How to Test a Balance. — Place the balance in position 
and so adjust it that it is level. First, see that the arms 
are of equal length. This is done by placing a ten 
gram weight on each pan. Should either arm be longer 




Truss form of beam. 



than the other, that arm will descend, providing 
the weights are correct. This may be determined 
by reversing the weight, when, if the error is due to 
the weight, the opposite arm will fall. Secondly, to 
determine whether the knife-edges are parallel, bal- 
ance the scale with weights and move the weights 
to different positions on the pan. The equilibrium 
should remain unaffected if the knife-edges are parallel. 
To test the sensitiveness of the balance, observe whether 
it responds readily to its lightest weight when either 
lightly or heavily loaded. 



THE BALANCE 33 

The fulcrum or central knife-edge should be slightly 
above the centre of gravity. If too high, the balance 
vibrates rapidly and comes to rest quickly, but is not 
sensitive. If the point of support is too low, the equili- 
brium is unstable. When the support is at the centre 
of gravity, the pans, when equally loaded, remain 
wherever they may be placed without coming to a 
horizontal position. When using a balance do not wait 
for the oscillations to cease, but observe the equality 
of the oscillation as shown by the indicator. 

The life or sensitiveness of a balance is proportional 
to the care which it receives. Balances should be 
kept in closed cases, in order to protect them from 
dust or corrosion. Occasional cleaning with chamois 
skin is all that is necessary. Oil should not be used. 
The metallic parts should not be handled with bare 
hands, as the moisture from the skin is usually acid. 
Glass pans are preferable to metal ones, but are more 
easily broken. Never allow the beam of a balance to 
oscillate when not in use, nor add or remove weights 
from the pans when in motion. Never weigh corrosive 
or deliquescent substances on a scale pan, but use 
glass, tared vessels, or parchment paper. Return all 
weights to their proper places and clean the pans with 
chamois skin or soft cloth. 

Compound Lever or Box Balances. — This scale differs 
from the preceding in the fact that the pans are placed 
above the beam. To accomplish this and retain the 
pans in an upright position the multiple lever system 
is employed. This increases the friction and decreases 
the sensitiveness. 
3 



34 



METROLOGY 



Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate different styles of the box 
prescription balance, and Fig. 5 a compound lever 
counter balance. 



Fig. 3 




Box prescription balance. 
Fig. 4 




Glass box prescription balance. 

The Unequal Arm Balance. — The principle of the 
unequal arm balance is best seen in the old-fashioned 
steelyards. The longer arm of the beam is graduated 
to receive an adjustable weight. A number of balances 
have been constructed on this principle. Among the 
best is the triple beam balance (Fig. 6). However, it 



THE BALANCE 



35 



is a triple beam only in name. It has a single beam, 
the long arm of which is divided into three parts to 

Fig. 5 




Compound lever balance. 
Fig. 6 




Unequal arm balance. 
Fig. 7 




Troemner's solution balance. 



36 METROLOGY 

carry weights which increase in multiples of ten. The 
capacity is from 0.01 to 111 Gm. 

Troemner's solution scales (Fig. 7) is a compound 
lever scale having unequal arms and a capacity from 
1 Gm. to 20 kilos. It has two weighing bars supplied 
with sliding weights, and beneath the weighing beam 
is a bar with sliding poise attached which serves as a 
counterpoise for empty containers. 

The Torsion Balance. — In the torsion balance the 
double beam and pan supports are fastened to thin 
bands stretched over rigid frames. These take the 
place of the knife-edges, and are at right angles with 
the beam. The middle frame is fastened securely to 
the bottom of the case, while the end frames support 
the pans in an upright position above the frames. The 
resistance of the wire to the twist, caused by the oscil- 
lations of the beam, is overcome by placing a weight 
above the centre of gravity. It is placed either directly 
above the central band or upon each side in such a 
manner that if either end of the beam be lowered, the 
weights are removed from the centre of gravity. The 
height of the weight may be so adjusted that the force 
of gravity exactly overcomes the resistance. If the 
weight be so adjusted that the resistance is in slight 
excess, the balance becomes very sensitive, responding 
to the lightest weight, yet returning to its horizontal 
position as soon as the weight is removed. 

The prescription balance (Fig. 8) is provided with 
a small graduated bar and sliding weight. The 
divisions upon the upper edge are from one-eighth 
of a grain to eight grains. Those on the lower edge 



THE BALANCE 



37 



are from five milligrams to five decigrams. The 
torsion counter balance (Fig. 9) may be obtained with 
the beam graduated for avoirdupois, apothecaries', 
and metric weights. 



Fig. 8 




Torsion prescription balance. 



Fig. 9 




Torsion counter balance. 



Weights used in weighing are made of metal, the 
kind depending upon the grade and sort of weight 
desired. Heavy weights and those used for common 
commercial purposes are made of iron. Weights for 
the counter and the finer balances are made of brass. 
These are put up in blocks (Fig. 10), in pyramids 



38 



METROLOGY 



(Fig. 11), or in cups (Fig. 12). The block or case is 
the best form, as the weights are better protected from 
atmospheric oxidation. The cases are usually made of 
wood, but are sometimes made of iron, and are used 
for all systems of weights. The pyramid form is 



Fig. 10 



Fig. 11 





Block weights. Pyramid weights. 

Fig. 12 



c§ f§ 




Cup weights. 

generally used for avoirdupois weights. The cup or 
nest form is used principally for apothecaries' weights, 
though avoirdupois weights are occasionally seen in 
this form. Each cup weighs the same as its contents, 
i. e., if the largest weight be 8 oz. the sum of the remain- 
ing weights is 8 oz. 



THE BALANCE 



39 



The grain weights are made of brass, nickel-silver, 
or aluminum. The last has the advantage of being 
light, thus making the weights correspondingly large, 
more conveniently handled, and less easily lost. They 
are made of nickel-silver, as in Fig. 13, or of aluminum, 
as in Fig. 14. 



Fig. 13 




Prescription weights. 



to 6 grains (nickel-silver); 
(brass). 



to 2 drams 



Fig. 14 




Aluminum grain weights. 



Fine metric weights are generally put up in cases 
ranging from one centigram to fifty or one-hundred 
grams (Fig. 15). Milligrams are weighed by placing 
a rider on the graduated beam. Coarser weights 






40 METROLOGY 

are put up in blocks ranging from one gram to one 
kilogram. 

Tare is the term applied to the weight of the container 
in which a substance is weighed or kept. 

Fig. 15 




Analytical weights. 

Net weight is the weight of the substance alone. 

Gross weight is the weight of the container and sub- 
stance. 

In practice it is customary to counterpoise the retainer 
with shot or coarse sand, using two cups, with a spout 
at the side and a funnel top, so that the contents may 
be poured from one to the other as required. 



MEASURES 



41 



MEASURES. 

Measures used by pharmacists are made of metal 
or glass for determining the volume of liquids. Metal 
measures are only used for coarse work, and are made 
of tinned iron, enamelled sheet iron, and tinned copper. 
For ordinary manufacturing and prescription work 
glass measures are preferable. They are made in 



Fig. 16 



Fig. 17 



Fig. 18 




Cone shape. 



Tumbler sliape. 



Acme beaker shape. 



four forms, viz., conical, tumbler-shape, beaker-shape, 
and cylindrical, and graduated in either apothecaries' 
or metric system. The adhesion of the liquid to the 
glass gives a concave surface to most liquids. The 
correct reading for the contents should be made midway 
between the upper and lower edge of the meniscus. 
If the reading be made at the bottom of the meniscus 



42 



METROLOGY 



it will more nearly represent the amount of liquids 
delivered from the graduate. Finely graduated flasks 
usually have two marks on the neck. The lower one 
represents the volume of liquid the flask holds, while 
the upper represents the volume which the flask will 
deliver. The surface of the liquid should be level 



Fig. 19 



Fig. 20 





Cylindrical graduate. 



Minim graduate. 



with the eye and the graduate in an upright position. 
A slightly oblique position of the graduate will cause 
a decided error in the reading of the contents. The 
greater the surface of the liquid the greater will be 
the liability to error. Hence the cylindrical form of 
graduate is preferable. Some prefer the conical form 
for small quantities, as the surface decreases with the 



MEASURES 



43 



quantity. Pipettes (Fig. 21) should be used for the 
accurate measuring of small quantities, and these can 
be obtained graduated for minims as well as for tenths 
of a cubic centimeter. Several American firms guar 



Fig. 21 



V 




w 



Pipettes. 



antee the accuracy of their graduates. However, phar- 
macists should test all graduates used, either by com- 
parison with standard graduates or by counterpoising 
the graduate on a balance and weighing the amount 



44 METROLOGY 

of distilled water required for each of the principal 
divisions. A fluidounce of distilled water at 15.6° C. 
should weigh 455.7 grains; at 25° C, 454.6 grains. 

Graduates having a curved lip should be selected, 
so that liquids will flow from the edge and not down 
the side of the graduate. Avoid graduates with grooves 
at the base, as they are difficult to keep clean. Avoid 
graduates that are graduated on one side for fluid 
measure and on the other for the metric system, as 
they create confusion and it is not so. easy to see when 
the graduate is level. This can be more easily observed 
if separate graduates are used for each system and part 
of the graduations extend around the graduate. Grad- 
uates may be had with a hard rubber base, which are 
thus not so easily broken. 

Approximate Measures. — 

One teaspoonful equals about 1 fluidram, 4 cubic 
centimeters. 

One dessertspoonful equals about 2 fluidrams, 7.5 
cubic centimeters. 

One tablespoonful equals about 4 fluidrams, 15 
cubic centimeters. 

One wineglassful equals about 2 fluidounces, 60 
cubic centimeters. 

One teacupful equals about 4 fluidounces, 120 cubic 
centimeters. 

One tumblerful equals about 8 fluidounces, 240 
cubic centimeters. 

One drop is usually considered as equal to one minim; 
but it varies in size from three-fourths of a drop to 
four drops in one minim, depending upon the character 



MEASURES 45 

of the liquid and the surface from which it is dropped. 
The broader the surface the greater the adhesive power 
exerted upon the liquid before it accumulates sufficient 
weight to cause it to fall; hence, the larger the drop. 
Therefore, when selecting tubes for droppers, the 
external diameter of the tube should be considered 
rather than that of the orifice. 

Two forms of medicine droppers appear on the 
market. One form produces small drops, and is known 
as the eye dropper. The other form is called the 
medicine dropper, and produces 60 drops to the dram, 
or one drop to the minim of distilled water. 

The following is the approximate number of drops 
to the minim of various liquids compared with one 
drop of water. Nearly all alcoholic liquids, as tinctures, 
fluidextracts, and spirits, afford from 2 to 2.5 drops. 
Most volatile oils and oleoresins afford 2 drops; ether, 
3 drops; chloroform, 4 drops; hydrochloric acid, 1.2 
drops; nitric acid, 1.6 drops; sulphuric acid, 2 drops; 
and diluted mineral acids, 1 drop. 



CHAPTEE II. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

Specific gravity may be defined as the relative weights 
of equal bulks or volumes of different bodies, water 
being the recognized standard for solids and liquids, 
and hydrogen or air the standard for gases. 

Density should not be confused with specific gravity. 
They may have the same values and are frequently 
used interchangeably. Specific gravity is relative, while 
density is weight of a unit volume. 

In taking the specific gravity of solids or liquids, 
the object sought is always the weight of a volume 
of water equal to that of a volume of the substance, 
the specific gravity of which we desire, whether that 
substance be soluble, insoluble, lighter or heavier 
than water. Then the weight of the substance divided 
by the weight of an equal volume of water gives the 
specific gravity. The specific gravity of liquids is 
usually taken with a specific gravity flask (pycnometer) 
or a hydrometer. 

The volume of all bodies varies with change in tem- 
perature. It is therefore necessary that determinations 
should be made at a stated temperature. For scientific 
purposes 4° C. is selected, because it is the temperature 
at which water has its greatest density. For other 
reasons working-room temperature is to be preferred. 
The former is not always easily obtained and cannot 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY FLASKS 47 

be conveniently maintained. If a liquid be measured 
at a reduced temperature and weighed at a higher 
temperature, expansion occurs and part of the liquid 
is forced through the capillary tube in the cork and 
lost by evaporation before an accurate weighing can 
be made. This is especially true of very volatile liquids. 
Another source of error is the condensation of moisture 
from warm air upon a cold surface. The United 
States Pharmacopoeia has adopted 25° C. as the tem- 
perature for taking specific gravity except in the case 
of a few liquids with a particularly low boiling point. 
Great Britain has adopted 15.6°; Germany and 
France, 15° C. In ordinary work barometric pressure 
is ignored. It is assumed to be normal, 760 mm. 
Usually the substance and the water are weighed at 
the same temperature, but as this is not always the 
case it is best to express the temperature thus: 
25° 25° 25° 

The numerator indicates that the substance was 
weighed at 25° and compared with an equal volume 
of water weighed at the temperature indicated by the 
figures in the denominator. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY FLASKS. 

(Pycnometers.) 

A common bottle or flask may be used for taking 
the specific gravity if an exact volume can be measured 
each time, but for convenience special flasks are made 
which are light and constructed to hold a given volume. 



48 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

Fig. 22 is the ordinary form. The flask is filled, and 
when the stopper is inserted the excess flows out through 




Specific gravity flask. 

a capillary opening in the stopper. These are usually 
made to hold 25, 50, or 100 gm. of water at a given 
temperature. 

Squibb's specific gravity flask (Fig. 23) is made with 
a graduated neck of sufficient length to cover the 
expansion of a liquid when raised from 4° C. to 25° C. 
They are made to hold either 25, 50, or 100 Gm. of 
water at 4° C. when filled to the zero at the bottom 
of the neck. If the volume occupied by the required 
weight of water be recorded at any temperature between 
zero and 25° C, the flask may be used for taking the 
specific gravity of any liquid at any time at that tem- 
perature, without subsequent weighing with water. 
The flask when filled should be placed in a bath, kept 
at the required temperature, until the height of the 
liquid in the scale does not change, which will prove 
that the contents of the flask is of the same temperature 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY FLASKS 



49 



as the bath. With light liquids it may be necessary 
to place the lead collar over the neck of the bottle to 



Fig. 23 




Squibb's specific gravity flasks. 



keep in an upright position. To fill the flask to a 
given point the best method is to lower the temperature 
of the liquid a little below that required and fill to the 



50 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY 



mark. When the required temperature is reached, 
remove the excess with a strip of blotting paper or 
a fine-pointed pipette. All external moisture should 
be removed before weighing. When weighing specific 
gravity flasks, especially the old form, the flask should 
not be held in the hands, as the warmth causes the 
liquid to expand. 

The Sprengel tube (Fig. 24) is convenient for taking 
the specific gravity of small quantities of liquids, also 
for fats and oils. They can be easily made of any 



Fig. 24 



QiBCi* 




The Sprengel tube. 

size, by anyone at all skilled in glass blowing. They 
are filled by placing one end in the liquid and applying 
suction to the other. 

The pycnometer should be either counterpoised 
or its weight accurately determined and subtracted 
from the weight of flask and liquid to obtain the net 
weight, which, divided by an equal weight of water, 
gives its specific gravity. If a pycnometer weighs 
10 Gm. and holds 25 Gm. of water, and when filled 



HYDROMETERS OR AREOMETERS 51 

with glycerin weighs 41.25 Gni., the weight of the 
glycerin will be 41.25 — 10 = 31.25 Gm. To find the 
specific gravity, divide 31.25 by 25, equals 1.25. 

As glass contracts until two years old, all graduated 
flasks should be tested occasionally, but they ought 
not to be graduated until contraction ceases. 

HYDROMETERS OR AREOMETERS. 

A body which just floats on water will rise to a greater 
height in glycerin and to a still greater height in chloro- 
form. In each case a volume of the liquid equal to the 
weight of the body will be displaced. The buoyant 
force of a liquid is proportional to its specific gravity. 
This principle is applied to the construction of hy- 
drometers. They are usually made of glass, and consist 
of a stem and two bulbs (Fig. 25). The bulb at the 
end is loaded to keep the instrument in an upright 
position and to cause it to sink to the required depth. 
Specific gravity hydrometers are graduated so that the 
number at the surface of a liquid, in which it floats, 
is its specific gravity. A universal hydrometer has 
been made which may be used for taking the specific 
gravity for liquids heavier and lighter than water, but 
they are not accurate, as the stem must be large to 
avoid great length. Accuracy can be obtained only 
by using hydrometers with small stems. Hydrometers 
may be procured in sets of six instruments. One is 
for liquids lighter than water, and is graduated from 
0.700 to 1.000. The remaining five are for liquids 
heavier than water. The first of these is graduated 
from 1.000 to 1.200; the second from 1.200 to 1.400; 



Fig. 25 



Fig. 26 



Sin 



fl 

i- 

j: 

3i 
I 

!i 



Hydrometer. 



United States Custom House 
hydrometer. 



HYDROMETERS OR AREOMETERS 53 

the third from 1.400 to 1.600; the fourth from 1.600 
to 1.800; and the fifth from 1.800 to 2.000. 

The urinometer is a hydrometer for determining the 
specific gravity of urine. The stem is made very small, 
so that fractions of a degree may be accurately read. 
The entire range is from 1.000 to 1.060. 

In using hydrometers care should be taken to prevent 
the instrument from adhering to the sides of the cylinder. 
The scale on the inside of hydrometers may be incor- 
rectly placed, or it may not be correctly graduated for 
the size of the stem. It is, therefore, important that new 
instruments be tested by placing in water to ascertain 
the zero point. They should also be tested by placing 
in other liquids of known specific gravity. Many 
hydrometers are graduated for technical purposes. 
Tralle's hydrometer is an alcoholometer for gauging 
spirits. It gives the percentage of alcohol by volume 
at 15.6° C. If the instrument be used at any other 
temperature, a correction must be made, since an 
increase in temperature causes a decrease in density. 
For each centigrade degree above 15.6°, subtract 0.27, 
and for each Fahrenheit degree above 60°, subtract 
0.15. If the instrument sinks in alcohol to 95 at 
25° C, we must subtract 

(25 — 15.6) X 0.27 

from 95, equal to 92.46, as the percentage of absolute 
alcohol. For each degree below 15.6° C, add 0.27, 
and for each degree Fahrenheit below 60°, add 0.15. 
Gay-Lussac's hydrometer is similar to the preceding, 
except that it is to be used at 15° C. instead of at 15.6°. 



54 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

Richter's hydrometer gives the weight of absolute 
alcohol at 15.6° C. in 100 volumes. 

United States Custom House hydrometer (Fig. 26) 
has three separate scales, Tralle's, Richter's, and the 
United States Custom House scale giving degrees 
above and below proof. 

Saccharometers are for determining the percentage 
of sugar in syrup. 

Baume hydrometers are constructed for both heavy 
and light liquids. The degrees are arbitrary. For 
liquids heavier than water the zero mark is the point 
at which the instrument sinks in water, and 15° is the 
point at which it sinks in a 15 per cent, solution of 
salt. The intervening space is divided into 15 equal 
spaces, and the remainder of the stem into similar 
divisions. For liquids lighter than water the zero 
mark is the point at which the hydrometer sinks in a 
10 per cent, solution of salt, and the 10° mark is the 
point at which it sinks in water. The intervening 
space is divided into ten equal parts, and the remainder 
of the stem into similar divisions. 

Baume degrees may be converted into specific gravity 
degrees as follows: 

For liquids heavier than water, divide 145 by 145 

145 
minus the given number of degrees. Thus: — - — — 

= 1.7058, which is the specific gravity equal to 60° B. 
For liquids lighter than water, divide 140 by 130 plus 

140 
the given number of degrees. Thus: f^rr^n = 0.752, 

which is the specific gravity equal to 56° B. 



HYDROMETERS OR AREOMETERS 55 

Carter's hydrometer is similar to Baume's, except 
that 15° of the former are equal to 16° of the latter. 
Hence, Carter's degrees may be changed to Baume's 

i . i • i 15 
by multiplying by ^ 

Twaddell's hydrometer is used for liquids heavier 
than water. To change Twaddell's degrees to specific 
gravity degrees, multiply by 5 and add 1000. Sixty- 
five degrees Twaddell equals (65 X 5) + 1000 or 1.325 
specific gravity. 

Eichhorn's areopycnometers (Fig. 27) are made in 
sets of three: two for liquids heavier than water, and 
one for liquids lighter than water. The lower bulb 
is filled with the liquid to be tested and the instrument 
placed in water. The extent to. which it sinks is the 
specific gravity. 

Rosseau's densimeter (Fig. 28) is intended for taking 
the specific gravity of small quantities of light liquids 
like volatile oils. The instrument is floated in water 
and exactly 1 Cc. of the oil is placed in the cup at the 
top of the stem. The degree to which it sinks multi- 
plied by 0.05 will give the specific gravity of the oil. 

Fahrenheit's and Nicholson's hydrometers differ from 
the preceding in that they are made to sink to a given 
point on the stem by the use of weights. Fahrenheit's 
is intended for liquids only, while Nicholson's may be 
used for both liquids and solids. 

Nicholson's hydrometers are made of brass (Fig. 29). 
The instrument is placed in water and weights are 
placed on the pan until the hydrometer sinks to a given 
mark on the stem. This weight we will designate 



56 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY 



as normal weight. The weight of the instrument 
in air plus the normal weight gives the weight of the 



Fig. 27 



Fig. 28 



Fig. 29 



I 






Nicholson's 
hydrometer. 



water displaced by the instrument. 
When placed in any other liquid and 
treated as before, the weight of the 
instrument plus the weights added 
is the weight of the liquid dis- 
placed, which, divided by the weight 

of the water displaced by the instrument, gives the 

specific gravity of the liquid used. 

For solids, the substance is placed on the pan and 



Eichhorn's areopyc- 
nometer. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY TAKEN WITH THE PLUMMET 57 

weights added until the hydrometer sinks to the mark. 
The weight required, subtracted from the normal 
weight, gives the weight of the substance in air. If 
the substance be now placed in the cone C, and weights 
added to the pan as before, the required weight sub- 
tracted from the normal weight gives the weight of 
the substance in water. The weight in water sub- 
tracted from the weight in air gives the weight of water 
displaced, which is the weight of a volume of water 
equal to the volume of the substance. 

If the solid should be lighter than water, the method 
is the same, except that when weighed in water the 
substance is placed under the cone B, which is per- 
forated at the apex to allow the air to pass out. The 
normal weight subtracted from the weight required 
with the substance under water, plus the weight in 
air, is the weight of an equal volume of water. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TAKEN WITH THE PLUMMET. 

The specific gravity of liquids may also be taken 
with a balance and plummet. When a solid is im- 
mersed in any liquid it displaces a weight of that liquid 
equal in volume to the volume of the solid. By deter- 
mining the weight of water displaced and the weight 
of any other liquid displaced by a given solid, the 
specific gravity is determined by dividing the weight 
of the liquid displaced by the weight of water displaced. 
Thus, suppose a piece of glass weighs 39 Gm. in air, 
24 Gm. in water, and 20.25 Gm. in glycerin. Then 
39-24= 15, the weight of water displaced; 39 - 20.25 = 






58 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

18.75, the weight of glycerin displaced; 18.75-^-15 = 
1.25, the specific gravity of the glycerin. 

Note. — If a piece of glass be made of such size 
that it will displace exactly ten grams of w*ater, then 
the loss of weight in any liquid, divided by ten, will 
give the specific gravity. If the specific gravity of 
glass be 2.600, then a piece weighing 26 Gm. will dis- 
place 10 Gm. of water, 12.4 Gm. of glycerin, or 7.16 
Gm. of ether. 

The Mohr and the Westphal specific gravity balances 
(Fig. 30) are constructed on the above principle. 
The plummet takes the form of a short thermometer, 
and is adjusted to displace exactly 10 Gm. of water at 
15° C. This plummet is suspended, by a fine platinum 
wire, from a hook at the outer end of the balance beam, 
and is counterpoised by a weight at the opposite end 
of the beam. When the plummet is suspended in 
water a 10 Gm. weight upon this hook is required to 
restore equilibrium. If the plummet be suspended in 
glycerin, additional weight will be required to restore 
the equilibrium. The weights are in the form of riders, 
each weight being one-tenth of the weight of the next 
larger. The arm of the beam is divided into ten equal 
spaces. Since the large weight upon the hook repre- 
sents ten grams, a weight of the same size at the second 
notch on the beam represents two grams. The next 
smaller weight at the fourth notch represents 0.4 Gm., 
the next smaller at the sixth notch represents 0.06 Gm., 
and the next at five represents 0.005 Gm., which give 
a specific gravity of 1.2465. Fig. 31 represents a 
specific gravity reading of 1.3683. The large Westphal 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY TAKEN WITH THE PLUMMET 59 

balance is supplied with two cylinders, one displacing 
exactly 10 Gm. of water, and the other 1 Gm. The 

Fig. 30 




Westphal's specific gravity balance. 
Fig. 31 




1.3683 



Showing the manner of reading the specific gravities. 



60 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

smaller balances are supplied with but one cylinder, 
which displaces 5 Gm. of water. The largest weight 
is 5 Gm., the next smaller, 0.5 Gm., etc. 

THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS. 

For Solids Insoluble in and Heavier than Water. — 
Weigh the solid in air, after which suspend it from one 
arm of the balance by means of a silk thread. Then 
place a beaker of water on a bench, over the scale pan, 
in such a manner that the substance is immersed with- 
out touching or otherwise interfering with the free 
movements of the pan (Fig. 32), and again weigh. The 
weight of the substance in the water subtracted from 
the weight of the substance in air gives the weight of 
water displaced. This is equal in volume to the volume 
of the solid. 

Example. — A piece of native lead sulphide weighs 
in air 108.75 Gm. and in water 93.75 Gm. 

108.75 — 93.75 = 15, the weight in grams of water 
displaced. 

108.75 -=- 15 = 7.25, specific gravity of the lead 
sulphide. 

When weighing a substance in water carefully remove 
all adhering air bubbles. The water also should be of 
the required temperature. 

Solids Insoluble in but Lighter than Water. — A solid 
when floating in water displaces a weight of water 
equal to the weight of the solid, and a volume of water 
equal to that portion of the solid which is below the 
surface. To obtain the weight of water equal to the 



THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS 



61 



exposed part of the solid, the solid itself must be attached 
to a sinker of sufficient weight to cause the whole to 
be submerged. The difference between the weight of 
the sinker in water and the weight of both solid and 



Fig. 32 




Showing the manner of weighing a solid body in a liquid. 

sinker in water will give the weight of water equal to 
the volume of the solid that was exposed when floating. 
This, plus the weight of the solid in air, gives the weight 
of water displaced by the solid. For instance, a piece 
of wax weighs 2.16 Gm. in air. A piece of lead weighs 



62 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

10.35 Gm. in water. The weight of both in water is 
10.26 Gm. Then 10.35 - 10.26 + 2.16 = 2.25, the 
weight of water displaced by the wax; 2.16 -r 2.25 = 
0.96, the specific gravity of the wax. 

Solids Soluble in Water. — The method employed is the 
same as that used in taking the specific gravity of solids 
insoluble in water, except that in place of water some 
other liquid is used in which the substance is insoluble, 
as oil, alcohol, or turpentine. A correction is then 
made for the difference in the specific gravity of the 
liquid used and that of water, by multiplying by the 
specific gravity of the liquid. 

Example. — A crystal of potassium bichromate weighs 
19.705 Gm. in air and 13.27 Gm. in deodorized alcohol, 
specific gravity 0.816. What is the specific gravity 
of the potassium bichromate ? 

19.705 - 13.27 = 6.435, the loss of weight in alcohol. 

19.705 -7- 6.435 = 3.062, the specific gravity as com- 
pared with alcohol. 

3.062 X 0.816 = 2.495, the specific gravity as com- 
pared with water. 

Powders Insoluble in Water. — Fill a specific gravity 
flask with water and weigh. Empty the flask, introduce 
a weighed quantity of the powder, partially fill with 
water, and rotate gently to remove air. Completely 
fill with water and weigh. Subtract this weight from 
the weight of the flask filled with water plus the weight 
of the powder. The difference will be the weight of 
the water displaced by the powder. For instance, a 
flask filled with water weighs 58 Gm. The same 
flask containing 12 Gm. of sand and filled with water 



THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS 63 

weighs 65.2 Gm.; 58 + 12 = 70 Gm.; 70 - 65.2 = 4.8 
Gm., the weight of water displaced; 12 -r- 4.8 — 2.5, 
the specific gravity of the sand. 

Powders Soluble in Water. — The method employed 
is the same as that used in taking the specific gravity 
of powders insoluble in water, except that in the place 
of water some other liquid is used in which the sub- 
stance is insoluble. A correction is then made for 
the difference in the specific gravities of the liquids 
used. (See Specific Gravity of Solids Soluble in Water, 
p. 62.) 

Special Methods. — A graduated cylinder is partially 
filled with water and a weighed quantity of an insoluble 
solid substance introduced. Observe the increase in 
volume. Divide the weight of the substance by the 
increase in volume, which gives the approximate 
specific gravity. 

The specific gravity of small quantities of any sub- 
stance may sometimes be taken by preparing a liquid 
of such density that the substance will remain sus- 
pended in it. The liquid will then have the same 
specific gravity as the suspended substance, and the 
specific gravity of the substance may be determined 
by taking the specific gravity of the liquid in the usual 
manner. To illustrate, most fixed oils are insoluble 
in alcohol. Hence, a mixture of alcohol and water 
may be made of such density that the oil will float 
indifferently in the mixture. 

Lovi's beads are constructed on this principle. They 
are small glass beads of varying densities. If several 
are placed in a liquid some will sink, others will rise 



64 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

to the surface, while a single one may remain suspended 
in the liquid. The mark upon this one shows the 
specific gravity of the liquid. 

TO FIND THE SPECIFIC VOLUME OF A LIQUID. 

Specific volume is the volumetric ratio existing 
between the same weights of different bodies, as com- 
pared with the volume of the same weight of water. 
It is therefore the reciprocal of specific gravity. In 
pharmaceutical practice its use is confined to liquids. 
Specific volume is obtained by dividing the volume 
of a given weight of the liquid by the volume of an 
equal weight of water. 

Example. — 100 gr. of glycerin measure 84 minims. 
100 gr. of water measure 105 minims. What is the 
specific volume of the glycerin ? 

84 ■*- 105 = 0.8, the specific volume of the gly- 
cerin. 

A given weight of liquid cannot be as accurately 
measured as a given volume of liquid can be weighed. 
Therefore, a better method is to find the specific gravity 
and divide 1 by the specific gravity. 

Example. — The specific gravity of glycerin is 1.25. 

1 t- 1.25 = 0.80, the specific volume of the glycerin. 
Therefore, to find the volume of a given weight of 
any liquid, multiply by its specific volume, or divide 
by its specific gravity. In the metric system this is 
all that is necessary, but in the use of other weights 
and measures a correction must be made for the differ- 
ence in size of the denominations used. 



TO FIND THE SPECIFIC VOLUME OF A LIQUID 65 

Example. — To find the volume of ten pounds of 
chloroform. The specific gravity of chloroform is 

1.49. Hence, the specific volume is Yaq = 0.671, and 

10 X 0.671 = 6.71. Correcting for the difference 
between the weight of the pounds and pints of distilled 
water, we have 6.71 X 0.96 = 6.44 pints. (See Equiva- 
lents, p. 28.) 



CHAPTER III. 

HEAT. 
FUELS. 

Many pharmaceutical operations require heat ob- 
tained by the combustion of various kinds of fuel. 
The fuel selected depends upon the object to be ob- 
tained. Wood, charcoal, and anthracite coal, bitu- 
minous coal, and coke are now seldom used directly, 
but are used for the production of steam, which is the 

Fig. 33 



Spirit lamp. 

ideal heat for the manufacture of pharmaceutical prod- 
ucts. Gas, gasoline, kerosene, and wood alcohol have 
been extensively used in minor operations. Now that 
denatured alcohol is available, it will doubtless to some 
extent replace wood alcohol, gasoline, and kerosene. 
Alcohol burns with a non-luminous blue flame, forming 
little deposit and producing intense heat. The alcohol 



FUELS 



67 



lamp (Fig. 33) burns from a wick, and has a cap which 
can be placed over the wick to reduce the size of the 
flame. The alcohol stoves giving the best results are 



Fig. 34 




Alcohol vapor stove. 
Fig. 35 




Alcohol vapor stove. 



those in which the alcohol is first vaporized. When the 
burner is once started the heat is sufficient to vaporize 
the alcohol. Such an alcohol stove is shown in Figs. 34 
and 35. The apparatus for use in the burning of 



68 HEAT 

other fluid or solid fuels is too familiar to require 
description. 

Gas. — Gas is preeminently the fuel for the chemist 
and pharmacist It is usually produced by the destruc- 
tive distillation of soft coal, and consists principally 
of carburetted hydrogen (CH 4 ) associated with some 
of the lighter hydrocarbons, hydrogen, carbon mon- 
oxide and carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen. Gas 
burns with a luminous flame, and must be mixed with 
air to secure the best results for heating purposes. 

APPARATUS FOR COMBUSTION. 

Burners and Gas Stoves. — Burners and gas stoves 
vary in size and construction, depending largely upon 
the purpose for which they are designed. The same 
principle prevails in all, and that is the Bunsen method 
of mixing air with gas before ignition or combustion. 
The principle is best illustrated in the Bunsen burner 
(Fig. 36). The gas enters the burner through a 
small orifice in the centre of the base, and mixes with 
air which enters through small openings (also at the 
base) on the sides of the tube. The amount of air 
admitted is regulated by turning a small band surround- 
ing the base of the burner tube and having openings 
corresponding with those in the inner tube. In some 
burners the tube is supported by a side arm, and the gas 
passes through the air space, as in Fig. 37. The principle 
remains the same whether the tube be upright or hori- 
zontal as in Fig. 38. In a lighted Bunsen burner the 
flame appears to be divided into two parts. The inner 



APPARATUS FOR COMBUSTION 



69 



cone consists of but partially consumed gas mixed 
with air. This reduces metallic oxide, and hence is 



Fig. 36 



Fig. 37 




Bunsen burner. 




Bunsen burner. 



Fig. 38 




Horizontal burner. 



called the reducing flame. In the outer cone the gas 
is wholly consumed, and because it oxidizes metals it is 



70 



HEAT 



called the oxidizing flame. Usually it is unsafe to 
leave an ordinary burner burning when out of the 
room for any length of time. It is liable to ignite at 
the base, melt the rubber at that point, and burn the 
table. This is apt to occur when the flame is low. 
Burners with the tube somewhat contracted at the top 
are least apt to ignite at the base. The whole difficulty 
may be overcome by covering the top of the burner 
with a fine wire gauze, as in Fig. 39. When an extremely 



Fig. 39 



Fra. 40 





Fletcher's safety burner. 



Minim burners. 



low flame is required, the "minim" burner (Fig. 40) 
may be used. This is so constructed that only a small 
jet of gas unmixed with air is burned. Many of the 
large burners or gas stoves are furnished with legs so 
short that it is unsafe to place them on a wood table 
without the protection of an iron plate or an asbestos 
slab. 



APPARATUS FOR COMBUSTION 



71 



Electric Stoves. — Electric stoves are extensively used 
as a source of heat, but are not in general use for phar- 
maceutical purposes. 

Safety Burners. — Safety burners for the evaporation 
or distillation of inflammable liquids (Fig. 41) are con- 

Fig. 41 




Hood and constant level water bath, for use with inflammable liquids. 



structed on the principle of the miner's safety lamp. 
The burner is surrounded by fine wire gauze and the 
substance to be heated placed on a water bath over 
the burner. Inflammable vapors may pass through 
the gauze and ignite on the inside, but the flame will 
not pass through the gauze and ignite the vapors without. 



72 HEAT 

Blast Lamps (Fig. 42). — Blast lamps differ from 
the Bunsen burner in that the air is supplied under 
pressure from a foot bellows or water blast. By regu- 

Fig. 42 




Blast lamp. 



lating the supply of gas and air perfect combustion and 
intense heat will be produced. In practice a frequent 
fault is that too much air is forced through the burner, 
thus reducing the temperature. 



THERMOMETERS. 

Thermometers are used exclusively for measuring 
temperature. They consist of a capillary tube attached 
to a bulb and partially filled with mercury or colored 
alcohol. The air in the tube is exhausted before 



THERMOMETERS 73 

sealing. The scales for recording the temperature are 
arbitrary. Three systems are in vogue — the Fahrenheit, 
the Celsius or Centigrade, and Reaumur. The first 
two are used in the United States, the Fahrenheit for 
domestic uses, while Centigrade is employed almost 
exclusively for scientific purposes. The United States 
Pharmacopeia gives temperature in both Centigrade and 
Fahrenheit degrees, but prefers Centigrade. The scale 
graduation of different instruments is best understood 
by examining the accompanying illustration (Fig. 43), 
which shows the freezing and boiling points of water 
for each instrument. This shows the number of degrees 
between the freezing and boiling points, 180° F., 100° 
C, and 80° R. 
Since 180° F. are equal to 100° C, each degree 

Fahrenheit is equal to — — = — of a degree Centi- 
4 180 9 6 

grade, or — - = — of a degree Reaumur. In a 
180 9 

similar manner we find that one degree Centigrade is 

9 . 4 

equal to — = 1.8 of a degree Fahrenheit, or — of 
5 5 

a degree Reaumur. One degree Reaumur is equal to 

9 . 5 

— = 2.25 of a degree Fahrenheit, or — = 1.25 

of a degree Centigrade. 

The following formulas may be used to reduce 
degrees from one scale to those of another : 



F° — 32 X f = C° 


C° X f + 32 = F c 


F° — 32 X | = R° 


R° X f + 32 = F 


ro x i = c° 


C° X| = R° 



74 



HEAT 



The first two formulas should be learned, but the 
others are comparatively unimportant. If the con- 



Fig. 43 







X 


392 


( 

f 


•* 

X 


200 


F 

f 




160 








347 






175 






140 








302 






150 






120 








257 






125 






100 


B.P. 






212 






100 






80 


A 






167 






75 






60 








122 






50 






40 


o 

CO 






o 

77 






CO 

25 






20 








60 






15.6 






12.4 


F.P.v 






32 „ 






^ 






















-17.7 






-14.2 








-13.2 






-25 






-20 








-40 






-40 






-32 























Thermometers. 



struction on the instruments (Fig. 43) is understood, 
the formulas can be easily constructed. 



THERMOMETERS 75 

It is good practice to apply these directions to 
the changing of the degrees given in the illustra- 
tion to the corresponding degrees on the opposite 
scales. The forms or shapes of thermometers vary 
with their purpose or use. Those designed for 
chemical or pharmaceutical purposes are usually 
made of a thick glass capillary tube, or they consist 
of an inner and an outer tube with porcelain scale 
between. The accuracy of a thermometer may be 
tested as follows: Place it in water containing snow 
or broken ice and ascertain whether the zero point is 
correct. To determine the accuracy of the boiling 
point, suspend the thermometer in a flask of boiling 
water until the mercury becomes stationary. (See 
Boiling-point Determinations, p. 79.) To determine 
whether the capillary tube be of uniform diameter, 
place the instrument in a horizontal position and, with 
a slight jar, separate a portion of the mercury. Cause 
this mercury to traverse the entire length of the tube, 
frequently noting the number of degrees occupied by 
the separated column. This should be the same 
throughout the scale. The absence of air may be 
proved by inverting the thermometer, when the mercury 
should descend to its lowest point. Thermometers 
may also be tested by comparison with a standard 
instrument, or, in the absence of this, they may be sent 
to the Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, where 
they will be officially tested. 

Clinical Thermometers. — Clinical thermometers are 
small self-registering instruments covering a range of 
from 90° to 110° F. They are intended for taking the 



76 HEAT 

temperature of the human body by placing the bulb of 
the instrument beneath the tongue for a period of five 
minutes. In Europe it is customary to place the ther- 
mometer bulb in the arm pit. After use, the register 
should be forced below the normal temperature (98.5°) 
by enclosing the thermometer in the hand so that the 
bulb is held between the thumb and forefinger. Raise 
the arm above the head and with a rapid forward stroke 
bring the hand to the side with a sudden stop. Ther- 
mometers are frequently broken by holding the instru- 
ment in one hand and striking it upon the other. 

MELTING POINT. 

The changing of a substance from a solid to a liquid 
form by the aid of heat is called fusing or melting. 
Many solids in a pure condition melt or fuse at a con- 
stant temperature. This is known as their melting 
point. Hence, it serves as an efficient means of deter- 
mining their purity and identity. The melting point of 
substances easily powdered may be taken with an 
apparatus similar to that shown in Fig. 44. A similar 
apparatus may be made by filling a long-necked flask 
three-fourths full of sulphuric acid, and inserting a 
test-tube of such length that when the flange rests upon 
the top of the flask the bottom of the tube will be within 
about 12 mm. of the bottom. The test-tube should be 
filled with sulphuric acid to the level, of the acid in the 
flask. Some prefer to leave the acid out of the test- 
tube, using it simply as an air bath. This is not advis- 
able. The substance to be tested should be introduced 



MELTING POINT 



77 



into a capillary tube 1 to the depth of 12 mm. The tube 
when filled is attached to the thermometer with a plati- 
num wire so that the bottom of the tube is nearly even 
with the bottom of the thermometer (Fig. 45). When 
many determinations are to be made, a convenient 
method of fastening the tube to the thermometer is to 



Fig. 44 




Melting-point apparatus. 

use a narrow band of platinum foil long enough to 
encircle the thermometer one and a half times. The 
capillary tube is then slipped under the overlapping end. 
The tube and thermometer are then inserted into the 
apparatus until one-half of the capillary tube is immersed 
in the acid. Heat is then carefully applied and the 
reading made at the moment the particles begin to run 



1 A capillary tube may be made by heating an ordinary glass tube in a 
gas flame until very soft. Remove from the flame and slowly draw out 
to one or two millimeters in diameter. Cut into pieces six to eight centi- 
meters long and seal at one end. 



78 



HEAT 




Fia. 46 




Position of capillary tube. 



Beaker, with rod for stirring the acid. 

together, which is the melting 
point. Where great accuracy is 
not desired, an open beaker con- 
taining the acid may be used 
in place of the flask and tube. 
When the beaker is used the acid 
should be stirred frequently, best 
by raising and lowering a glass 
rod bent in the form of a large 
ring which encircles the ther- 
mometer (Fig. 46). 

For determining the melting 
point of substances like fats and 
wax, the method is the same, 
except that a thin glass tube 
about 3 mm. in diameter is 
selected, drawn out, and sealed 



BOILING POINTS 



79 



at one end; the substance is introduced in small 
pieces. Some prefer to melt the substance and draw 
a little of it into the tube before sealing. When this 
method is followed some time should elapse before 
making the test, as many complex fats, when melted 
and congealed, do not return to a constant melting 
point for several hours. With many substances it is 
advisable to record the degree at which they begin 
to soften and run and also the degree at which it runs 
together to form a clear liquid. It is always advisable 
to make an approximate determination first and then 
to make a second determination, applying the heat 
cautiously as the temperature approaches the melting 
point. 

BOILING POINTS. 

A liquid boils when the temperature reaches the 
point where its vapor tension equals the atmospheric 
pressure. This is definite for any given pressure, and 
the temperature at which a liquid boils, under normal 
pressure, 760 mm., is its boiling point. At normal 
pressure water boils at 100 C. At 658 mm. it boils 
at 96°. At 594 mm. it boils at 93.3°. Boiling points 
serve to determine the identity and purity of liquids. 
A simple apparatus for determining boiling points may 
be made as follows : A flask with a long neck contain- 
ing a few cubic centimeters of the liquid to be tested 
is fitted with a perforated cork, through which passes 
a glass tube of such diameter that a thermometer may 
be admitted and sufficient space for the passage of 
vapor remains. The tube should be about 2.5 cm. 
shorter than the thermometer, which may be suspended 



80 



HEAT 



from the top of the tube by passing a wire through the 
ring of the thermometer. The instrument should be 
adjusted, raising or lowering the inner tube, so that 
the bulb is just above the liquid. 



Fig. 47 




Boiling-point determination. 

Heat is applied by means of a sand bath or water 
bath until the liquid boils freely and the vapors pass 
out at the top of the tube. When the mercury becomes 
stationary the temperature is recorded. 

To determine the boiling point of the distillate during 
distillation, the bulb of the thermometer should be just 
below the exit tube of the distillation flask (Fig. 47). 



CHAPTER IV. 

METHODS OF SECURING DIFFERENT DEGREES 
OF TEMPERATURE. 

Various degrees of temperature may be obtained by 
the use of different baths. 

Water Baths. — Water baths should always be used 
for the evaporation of solutions containing organic sub- 
stances. Only sufficient heat to boil the liquid is neces- 
sary. Additional heat hastens the evaporation of the 
water in the bath without increasing the temperature of 
the solution. The temperature of a solution on a bath 

Fig. 48 




Water bath. 

is always a few degrees below that of the bath itself. 
Water baths vary in shape, size, and material, as illus- 
trated in Figs. 48, 49, and 50, Fig. 51 illustrates a bath 
with constant level attachment that holds only a little 
water, hence heats quickly. The constant level is main- 
tained by the water flowing through the inlet (Fig. 49) 
until the water in the bath is level with the top of the 
outlet tube. 
6 



82 



DIFFERENT DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE 



Steam Baths. — Steam baths are of two kinds. The 
open steam bath without pressure gives the same tem- 



Fig. 49 




Iron water bath with constant level. 




Copper water bath. 



perature as the boiling water bath. In the closed 
steam bath the steam is under pressure and gives a 



DIFFERENT DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE 83 

temperature increasing with increased pressure. Prof. 
Patch's tubular boiler (Fig. 52) is intended for small 

Fig. 51 




Kekule"'s constant level water bath. 
Fig. 52 




Prof. Patch's steam boiler. 



84 DIFFERENT DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE 

laboratories where steam is not available. It is twenty- 
two inches high, ten inches in diameter, and has a 
capacity of seven gallons. It is equipped with a water 
gauge and safety valve, and heated with gas, gasoline, 
or coal oil. 

Salt Baths. — Salt baths are saturated solutions of 
various salts. The temperature obtainable varying 
with the salt used: Sodium Chloride, 108-4°; Sodium 
Nitrate, 121°; Calcium Nitrate, 151°; Calcium Chloride, 
179°. 

Glycerin Baths. — Glycerin baths may be used to 
obtain a temperature as high as 250°. Above this tem- 
perature disagreeable vapors of acrolein are given off. 

Oil Baths. — Oil baths are frequently used to obtain 
a temperature as high as 260°. Many fixed oils have 
been used, but above 175° nearly all give off disagree- 
able vapors. The best results are obtained by the use 
of petrolatum or paraffin. 

Sand Baths. — Sand baths are used where it is not 
advisable to use the direct flame. It prevents sudden 
changes in temperature, and is therefore a protection 
to glass vessels. Shore sand only should be used, as 
bank sand is sharp and apt to scratch the vessels. 

Not more than a cubic centimeter of sand should 
be between the bottom of the vessel and the bottom of 
the bath, but should be banked up well around the 
vessel. It is convenient to have two forms — one shallow, 
for evaporation, and another deep, for distillation. 

Air Baths. — Air baths may be used in place of a sand 
bath for many operations. A very convenient form 
is obtained by placing three inches of stovepipe on a 



DIFFERENT DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE 85 

cast-iron stovelid. Ordinary water-bath rings may be 
used to support the vessel to be heated. 



Fig. 53 



Fig. 54 




Reichert's thermostat. 



The Bunsen-Kemp gas regu- 
lator or thermostat. 



86 DIFFERENT DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE 

Instead of using baths, wire gauze or sheets of 
asbestos are frequently used between the flame and 
the vessel. Asbestos is especially convenient, as, when 
wet, it can be moulded to any desired shape and retain 
the form when dry. 

Constant Temperatures. — For most pharmaceutical 
operations a sufficiently uniform temperature may be 
maintained by regulating the supply of fuel. How- 
ever, in operations requiring a great degree of accuracy, 
as in pepsin testing, a uniform temperature may be 
obtained by using a thermostat. 

Thermostat. — There are several forms of this instru- 
ment, but the principle is practically the same in all. 
The instrument is placed in the bath or oven and con- 
nected with the gas in such a manner that the gas must 
pass through the thermostat on its way to the burner. 
When the desired temperature is reached the height 
of the mercury is adjusted with a screw, seen at the left 
of Fig. 53, by which the temperature is automatically 
controlled through the expansion and contraction of 
the mercury, which gradually closes the opening at the 
lower end of the hollow stopper. Just above the lower 
end of the stopper is a small pinhole, which permits 
sufficient gas to escape to keep the flame from being 
entirely extinguished. In the Bunsen-Kemp thermo- 
stat (Fig. 54) the adjustment is made by means of a 
screw at the top of the instrument, which raises and 
lowers the inner tube. 



CHAPTER V. 

VAPORIZATION. 

Vaporization is the process of changing a solid or 
liquid into a vaporous or gaseous form. It is, there- 
fore, used in, or forms a part of, Evaporation, Granu- 
lation, Distillation, and Sublimation. 

EVAPORATION. 

The principal object of evaporation is concentration, 
as in the manufacture of extracts and for crystallization. 

Spontaneous Evaporation. — Spontaneous evaporation 
is the term applied to the evaporation of liquids by 
exposure to the atmosphere, preferably in a warm, 
dry room or in a draught of dry air. It is used for the 

Fig. 55 




Evaporating dish. 

evaporation of volatile solvents and for the concentra- 
tion of solutions of substances easily injured by direct 
heat. The greater the surface exposed the more rapid 
is the evaporation. Hence, broad shallow vessels 
similar to Fig. 55 are best for evaporation. These 
are usually made of porcelain, very thin and easily 



88 VAPORIZATION 

broken, therefore they should not be heated over a 
direct flame. Stirring increases the evaporation sur- 
face and aids evaporation. Mechanical stirrers are 
very convenient. 

Use of Heat in Evaporation. — When two vessels of the 
same diameter are filled to different depths with the 
same liquid and heated to the same temperature, but 
below the boiling point, the amount of vapor given off 
will be the same. But if the liquid in each be made 
to boil, the vessel containing the least liquid will yield 
the greatest amount of vapor. This is due to the fact 
that the vapors producing ebullition form at the bottom 
of the vessel and rise more easily through a shallow 
depth of liquid than through a deeper one; hence 
evaporation proceeds faster. 

If two vessels, one with a smooth and the other with 
a rough or corrugated bottom, but otherwise identical, 
are filled to the same depth and the boiling produced 
with the same amount of heat, evaporation will proceed 
more readily from the corrugated bottom. This is 
caused by the increased surface exposed to heat radiation. 

Evaporation is accelerated by increasing the tem- 
perature and also by decreasing the atmospheric 
pressure. Substances injured by ordinary evaporation 
may be safely evaporated in a partial vacuum. Place 
the substance in a flask and connect it with an aspirator 
(see p. 118). Evaporation will then occur at a much 
lower temperature. Aqueous liquids may be con- 
centrated by repeated freezing and removal of the ice, 
which consists principally of water. 

Dense viscous liquids do not evaporate as readily 



EVAPORATION 89 

as thin mobile liquids. Solutions containing organic 
matter should be evaporated over a steam or water 
bath and frequently stirred to prevent the formation 
of a pellicle over the surface, thus preventing the escape 
of the vapors. Caustic alkalies should be evaporated 
in polished iron or silver vessels, as they act on porcelain 
and glass. The evaporation of liquids yielding corro- 
sive vapors should be conducted under a hood con- 
nected with a good flue. A liquid to be evaporated 
to a given weight should be evaporated in a tared 
vessel and during evaporation occasionally weighed. 
By subtracting the tare, the weight of the contents may 
be determined. If the evaporation is to be carried to 
a given volume, the desired volume should be placed 
in the vessel and the depth of its deepest part measured. 
The remainder of the liquid is then added and evapora- 
tion continued until the same depth is reached. 

Fig. 56 




Grommets. 



Grommets. — Grommets are rings of straw, wood, or 
rubber for supporting evaporating dishes and round - 
bottomed vessels in an upright position. Old rubber 
tubing may be economically used for this purpose by 



90 VAPORIZATION 

cutting into proper lengths and uniting the ends 
with a piece of wood or tubing of smaller diameter 
(Fig. 56). 

GRANULATION. 

Very soluble or deliquescent substances cannot be 
easily prepared by crystallization. They are, there- 
fore, usually obtained in the dry form by evaporating 
a solution to a coarse granular powder. This operation 
is best conducted in porcelain or agate-ware dishes. In 
case any part of the substance is organic, great care is 
necessary to prevent charring. Direct heat may be 
applied until the solution becomes quite concentrated. 
When a pellicle begins to form upon the surface the 
heat should be gradually decreased and the solution 
constantly stirred to prevent the formation of crusts 
or lumps upon the bottom. The product may be 
amorphous or crystalline. Many granular powders 
are obtained by disturbing the process of crystallization 
(see p. 170). 

Granular Effervescent Salts. — Granular effervescent 
salts were formerly obtained in granular form by moist- 
ening the mixture with alcohol and passing the mass 
through a coarse sieve. At present the Pharmaco- 
poeia directs the mixture to be placed in an oven 
previously heated to from 93° to 104°. The water of 
crystallization liberated from the citric acid used softens 
the mass, which is then rubbed through a coarse sieve 
and dried. It should be closely watched, for if left too 
long the water of crystallization will be driven off, and 
the mass cannot then be granulated without the addition 
of moisture. 



CHAPTER VI. 

VAPORIZATION. DISTILLATION. 

Distillation consists of two operations, viz., 
vaporization and condensation. The principles of 
vaporization have been considered in the preceding 
chapter. Condensation is the opposite of vaporization, 
and is the changing of a substance from a gaseous or 
vaporous form to a liquid condition. The apparatus 
used for distillation consists of three parts, viz., boiler 
or vaporizer, condenser, and the receiver. The appa- 



Fig. 5 




Plain retort with adapter, a, and tabulated receiver, 6. 

ratus varies with the kind of substance and the quantity 
to be distilled. In small laboratory operations the 
boiler usually consists of a retort or flask. Fig. 57 
represents a plain retort with the adapter, a, and a 
tubulated receiver, b. Fig. 58 represents a tubulated 
retort with a plain receiver. The neck of the retort 
should be so shaped that the condensed liquid will 



92 



VAPORIZATION. DISTILLATION 



not flow into the retort. The shape of the retort in 
Fig. 57 is good, while that in Fig. 58 is not so desirable. 
The opening should also be placed higher and in such 
a position that the thermometer, when introduced, 
will be in an upright position instead of at an angle. 
Plain retorts should be filled by inverting and placing 
a long-necked funnel in the neck of the retort in such 
a position that the liquid will not come in contact with 
the neck of the retort. A piece of rubber tubing placed 
over the lower end of the funnel tube will prevent the 



Fig. 58 




Tabulated retort and plain reciever. 

breakage of the retort. The vapors may be condensed 
by placing the receiver in cold or ice water, or by wrap- 
ping wet cloths around the neck of the retort. 

Condensers. — Condensers are of various forms. 
Liebig's condenser (Fig. 59) consists of two tubes, 
one within the other. The inner tube is about one- 
quarter the diameter of the outer, and projects a few 
inches at each end. The outer tube at both ends is 
sealed to the inner tube, thus closing the space between 
them, and is provided with a small opening at or near 
each end. This is for the admission and discharge of 



CONDENSERS 93 

cold water, which should enter at the bottom and be 
discharged at the top. 

Squibb's upright condenser is a modification of 
Liebig's. The inner tube is made double, in the form 
of a U, with the outlet at the lower end. 

Spiral or worm condensers are made in various 
sizes. Small ones are commonly made of glass (Fig. 61), 
and large ones are made of block tin. In all cases the 
worm is constantly surrounded by cold water. 

Fig. 59 




Fig. 



,c =^*lfeE 



:sza: 



Liebig's condensers. 

Reflex Condensers. — In many operations it is 
necessary that the vapors be condensed and returned to 
the distillation flask. For this purpose a short condenser 
with large condensing surface, similar to Figs. 61, 62, 
and 63, is especially suitable. Spherical condensers 
(Figs. 64 and 65) are made of glass or metal and occupy 
but little space. 

Block tin or earthen condensing worms are generally 
used in large manufacturing establishments, though 
special condensers like the Beindorf and the Mitscher- 
lich give good results. 



94 



VAPORIZATION. DISTILLATION 



Adapters.— Adapters are used to connect retorts with 
receivers. They are large at one end and gradually 
contract at the other, and may be either straight or 



Fig. 61 



Fig. 62 



Fig. 63 




ioo Hi 



Reflex condensers. 



Reflex condenser with Soxhlet's extrac- 
tion apparatus. 



curved as desired. Flasks have largely replaced 
retorts, as they are much cheaper and more convenient. 
The best form of distillation flask has a round bottom 
and a side arm (Fig. 66). 



LUTES 



95 



Lutes. — Lutes are sometimes used to make air-tight 
connections between retorts, receivers, or adapters, or 



Fig. 64 



Fig. 65 




Glass spherical condenser. 



Fig. 66 





Copper condenser. 




Side arm distillation flasks. 



to close the imperfections in corks used for distillation. 
A good lute may be easily prepared by making a stiff 
paste of linseed meal and boiling]water. Porous corks 



96 VAPORIZATION. DISTILLATION 

may be made air-tight by painting them over with col- 
lodion or a solution of gelatin in water. Rubber tub- 
ing is generally used for connections but some distillates 
act upon rubber. In such cases animal membrane, 
as bladder, is softened in water and wrapped around 
the connection. 

Flasks are frequently connected with condenser 
by means of perforated corks. For this purpose only 
the best corks should be used. The perforations are 
usually made with brass cork borers. These should 
be kept sharp by the judicious use of a file, or by means 
of a special sharpener. When using the borer the edge 
should never be forced against a hard surface. A piece 
of rubber fastened to the edge of the table or to the door 
casing at a convenient height is excellent to hold the 
cork against while boring. The beginner should bore 
the cork from one end only, holding it firmly against 
the rubber. Only an experienced operator can bore a 
cork from both ends and make the openings meet 
evenly. If the cork is very long it is best to withdraw 
the borer when half through, and remove the core 
before finishing. A much easier and smoother cut may 
be made by heating the borer until hot before cutting. 
The amount of heat required is easily learned by a 
few trials. When boring rubber cork keep the borer 
wet with a solution of sodium hydroxide. 

Cutting and Bending Glass Tubes. — When ordinary 
flasks are used for distillation they are connected with 
the condenser by means of glass tubing which should 
be as large as convenient. The pieces are cut the 
required length by making a sharp, but not deep, 



DISTILLATION WITH STEAM 97 

scratch with a three-cornered file. Then take the tube 
in both hands, with the thumbs opposite the mark, 
and by pressing outward the glass is easily broken. 
Smooth the sharp end by heating in a gas flame. The 
pieces may now be bent at any desired angle by heat- 
ing in the carbon flame of a fan or fish-tail burner. 
Hold the tube between the thumb and fingers with 
the backs of the hands downward, rotating the tube 
to insure uniform heating. Keep the tube in the flame 
until quite soft. Remove, and bend the ends upward. 
When cold wipe off the carbon, and the result will be 
a smooth and even curve. Never use a Bunsen burner 
for bending glass, as the result is a sharp angle with 
thick glass on one side and thin on the other. This 
is easily broken and is also unsightly. When bending 
large tubes one end should be closed, and by blowing 
gently into the other end (while bending) the outside 
of the curve may be prevented from becoming flat. 

DISTILLATION WITH STEAM. 

Volatile oils and other volatile substances, not easily 
distilled by direct heat, may be distilled in a current 
of steam. Fig. 67 illustrates an apparatus similar to 
one used by the author for many years. The steam 
is generated in the can and carried within a half -inch 
of the bottom of the flask containing the substance to 
be distilled. The steam vaporizes and carries with it 
the volatile constituent. Sufficient heat should be 
applied to the flask to prevent the condensation of 
the steam in the flask before it is carried to the con- 
7 



98 



VAPORIZA TION. DISTILL A TION 



denser. By placing the flask at an angle the non- 
volatile portions are not easily carried into the con- 
denser by ebullition. 

Fractional Distillation. — Fractional distillation is used 
for the separation of liquids having different boiling 
points. A thermometer is placed in the flask, heat 
applied, and when distillation begins the temperature 



Fig. 67 




Apparatus for distillation with steam. 

is noted. Distillation is continued until the temperature 
rises, when the receiver is changed and distillation con- 
tinued. There should be as many different fractions 
as there are different boiling-point liquids in the mix- 
ture. The separation is not sharp, as a low boiling- 
point liquid will carry over some from a higher boiling- 
point liquid. The boiling point of a mixture is some- 



DISTILLATION WITH STEAM 99 

what higher than the lowest boiling-point liquid in 
that mixture. Ether boils at about 35.5°, alcohol at 
78°. The lowest boiling point of a mixture of one 
volume of alcohol and three volumes of ether is 37°. 
A mixture of three volumes of alcohol and one volume 
of ether boils at 43°. Ether can be more completely 
separated from alcohol if water be previously added 
to the mixture. If complete separation be desired, 
each fraction must again be fractionated. This must 
be repeated until each distillate has a constant boiling 
point. 

Destructive Distillation. — Destructive distillation is 
the term applied to the heating of organic substances 
at such a temperature that decomposition takes place. 
New substances are formed, some of which are volatilized 
and condensed. The destructive distillation of wood 
and bituminous coal furnishes numerous medicinal 
products, as phenol, creosote, ammonia, etc. 

Rectification. — Rectification is the term applied to 
redistillation. It is employed for the purpose of puri- 
fying liquids. 

Bumping. — Bumping is the term applied to the 
sudden ebullition of vapors from the bottom of a dis- 
tillation flask or retort. Bumping is annoying, and 
various devices have been proposed to cause the liquid 
to boil quietly. Pieces of glass are sometimes placed 
in the liquid. Pieces of pumice stone heated to a red 
heat immediately dropped in water, just before placing 
in the flask, produce good results. The author prefers 
to use several pieces of prepared capillary glass tubing. 
Heat ordinary tubing until very soft, draw out to about 



100 VAPORIZATION. DISTILLATION 

1 mm. in diameter, cut into pieces about one and one- 
fourth the diameter of the flask, and introduce. Before 
placing in the flask, the lower end should be softened 
and slightly curved, but not sealed. Otherwise the 
sharp edges may scratch the flask. Bumping may 
also be prevented by placing a capillary tube through 
the cork and nearly to the bottom of the flask. Connect 
the receiver with an aspirator, which will cause a con- 
stant stream of air to pass through the tube, thus keeping 
the liquid in motion. Vapors cannot then accumulate 
at the bottom of the flask. 

Pharmaceutical Stills. — Pharmaceutical stills in com- 
mon use are of two forms. First, those in which the 
vapors are condensed in a chamber directly over the 
vaporizer. This is the commonest form. It is the 
principle of the alembic, which is doubtless the most 
ancient form of still known. In the original the vapors 
were condensed by contact with the inner surface of 
the dome-shaped head, and cooled by the atmosphere. 
The distillate flowed down to a gutter at the base of 
the dome, and was discharged from a spout on one 
side. Later, the head of the still was kept cold by cover- 
ing with cold water. Pharmaceutical stills of this type 
are commonly made of tinned copper and used for 
the recovery of alcohol in the manufacture of extracts, 
etc. Formerly the chamber containing the cold water 
was left open, but in the more improved forms it is 
closed, as in the Beck still (Fig. 68). This consists of 
a water bath, A, the still or basin, B, containing the 
liquid to be distilled, and the dome or condenser, which 
is double. The cold water enters through a and is dis- 



DISTILLATION WITH STEAM 



101 



charged through b. The vapors from B are condensed 
by coming in contact with the cold inner surface of the 
condenser, and pass down the sides and are collected 
in two gutters with a common exit at c. Rubber or 
leather is placed between the water bath, basin, and 
condenser, and the whole clamped together by bolts. 



Fig. 68 




Beck's pharmaceutical still. 

On one side of the water bath is a tube for the escape 
of steam. The flow of the water through the condenser 
should be so regulated that when it leaves the condenser 
at b the temperature should be about 40°. If the con- 
denser be kept too cold, the vapors condense in the 
chamber before coming in contact with the surface 
and drop back into the still. The Anderson still is 



102 



VAPORIZATION. DISTILLATION 



similar to Beck's, and may be used for the recovery of 
alcohol, but is especially intended for the continuous 
distillation of water. It has a constant level water 
attachment (Fig. 69) supplied with water that flows 
through the condenser. 

The second form of pharmaceutical still, of which 
there are many modifications, is one in which the con- 
denser is separated from the vaporizer, but so connected 
with it that the vapors pass from the boiler into the 
condenser. Pharmaceutical stills of this type are 

Fig. 69 




The Anderson automatic still. 



represented by the Remington (Fig. 70) and the Prentiss 
(Fig. 71). In the Remington, the opening in the still 
head is at one side and connects directly with the con- 
denser, which is constructed on the principle of the 
tubular boiler. The body of the condenser contains 
several parallel tubes opening into a common chamber 
at each end. These tubes are surrounded by cold 
water. This arrangement affords large condensing 



DISTILLATION WITH STEAM 



103 



surface in a very short space. The Prentiss still is 
intended for the recovery of alcohol. Above the boiler 
is an upright column, B, which contains a rod bearing 
perforated disks. The vapors in passing through 
these disks become somewhat reduced in temperature, 



Fig. 70 




The Remington still. 



so that the water, which is vaporized with the alcohol 
and has a higher boiling point, is condensed and re- 
turned to the boiler, while the alcohol passes through 
the tube C to the condenser D. The distillate flows 
out at G. 



104 



VAPORIZA TION. DISTILLATION 



Steam is preferred for the distillation of alcohol. 
The evaporating pan is partially enclosed in a steam- 
tight copper jacket. The steam is admitted through 
a tube at the side, and the condensed water passes out 



Fig. 71 




The Prentiss alcohol reclaimer. 



at the bottom. In some cases only one tube is used 
to carry the steam to the still and return the condensed 
water to the boiler. Dr. Rice has devised a small 
steam still occupying but little space. 



CHAPTER VII. 

VAPORIZATION. SUBLIMATION. 

Sublimation is the vaporization and condensation 
of volatile solids. The apparatus used varies with 
the substance to be sublimed. The subliming vessel 
may be of iron, earthenware, or glass, and is connected 
with a condenser. If the temperature of the con- 
densing chamber be a few degrees below that of the 
sublimer, the vapors will condense on the wall in a 
compact mass, or the sublimate may remain liquid 
and flow down the sides and be run into moulds, as 
in stick sulphur. If the condensing chamber be kept 
cold the sublimate will condense in the form of a 
crystalline powder, as in sublime sulphur or mercurous 
chloride. Vapors of mercurous chloride are usually 
carried into a chamber filled with steam, which causes 
it to condense and fall into the condensed water. This 
dissolves any mercuric chloride that may have been 
formed. Sublimation is seldom used for manufacturing 
purposes except on a large scale. It is occasionally 
used in a small way for the purification of volatile 
solids, as in the preparation of iodine for volumetric 
analysis. In such cases the substance to be sublimed 
may be placed in an evaporating dish and covered with 
an inverted funnel, which serves as a condenser. When 
a substance to be sublimed is associated with a con- 



106 VAPORIZATION. SUBLIMATION 

siderable quantity of a non-volatile substance which 
melts at the temperature used, as in the sublimation 
of benzoic acid from benzoin, it should be mixed with 
sand. The heat should be applied very gradually and 
carefully regulated, as too high a temperature causes 
a loss of sublimate and, when organic matter is present, 
produces destructive distillation, which contaminates 
the sublimate. A convenient apparatus for use where 
the sublimate is desired in powder may be prepared 
by cutting off the stem of an ordinary retort close to 
the body, and connecting it with a wooden box. Such 
an apparatus may be made of any size to suit the oper- 
ation. Care should be taken to see that the neck of the 
retort does not become closed with the sublimate. 






CHAPTEE VIII. 

DESICCATION, EXSICCATION, CALCINATION, 
CARBONIZATION, INCINERATION, 
AND TORREFACTION. 

Desiccation is the complete removal of moisture 
from solids. Drugs are dried as a means of preservation 
and as an aid to comminution. In small operations 
this is usually accomplished in drying ovens, which 
are usually made of copper or aluminum. Hot-water 
drying ovens can be used only for temperatures below 
100°, while hot-air drying ovens may be used for 
either high or low temperatures. Drying closets or 
rooms are used for drying large quantities of materials. 
These are commonly heated with steam coils placed 
near the bottom of the closet. The shelves should be 
removable and made of slats covered with muslin 
or burlap. Substances easily injured by heat are 
frequently dried by spreading in a thin layer, in a 
dry room or attic, with free access of air but pro- 
tected from the sun. Desiccators are used for drying 
very small quantities of substances. They vary in size 
and shape, but are usually made of glass, and contain 
a receptacle for sulphuric acid or calcium chloride, 
substances having a strong affinity for water. Desic- 
cators are generally used in quantitative analysis for 
bringing substances to constant weight or to prevent 



108 EXSICCATION, INCINERATION, TORREFACTION 

their absorbing moisture while they are cooling before 
weighing. 

Exsiccation is desiccation applied to the removing of 
water of crystallization by heat. The product is usually 
in the form of powder; dried or exsiccated sulphate 
of iron is an example. Substances that melt in their 
water of crystallization should be allowed to effloresce 
in warm dry air before heating, otherwise it will be 
difficult to remove the water by heat. 

Calcination is the formation of oxides from inorganic 
salts, as carbonates, sulphates, and nitrates, by sub- 
jecting them to a high degree of heat, as in the manu- 
facture of magnesium and calcium oxides from their 
carbonates. 

Carbonization is the heating of substances without 
air until the organic matter is reduced to carbon, as 
in the manufacture of wood and animal charcoal. 

Incineration is the ignition of a substance in air until 
the organic matter is completely destroyed and only 
inorganic ash remains, as in the manufacture of bone 
ash. 

Torrefaction, or roasting, is the heating of an organic 
substance to a point just short of carbonization, as in 
the roasting of coffee. 



CHAPTER IX. 

COLATION AND FILTRATION. 

Colation. — The practical difference between eolation 
or straining, and filtration is, that eolation is applied 
to the separation of coarse particles from liquids, while 
filtration is the removal of fine particles by pouring 
the mixture through suitable porous media. Various 
porous fabrics, as gauze, muslin, flannel, and canton 
or cotton flannel, have been used for straining. The 
strainer should be thoroughly wet before the mixture 
is poured on, otherwise a longer time is required for the 
liquid to penetrate the strainer. For purposes of strain- 
ing, muslin and canton flannel are cheap and very 
serviceable. Muslins should be washed to remove 
sizing. Strainers may be folded like a filter and placed 
in a funnel or made into a bag and suspended from a 
ring or hook, or a square piece may be placed on a 
tenaculum, a frame having sharp brass or copper spikes 
in the corners and sides (Fig. 72). If after draining 
has ceased it is desirable to express the liquid from 
the precipitate, bring the two opposite edges of the 
strainer together, fold one over the other, then taking 
the strainer by the ends, twist in opposite directions. 
If straining fails to remove the fine particles, the liquid 
must be filtered in order to obtain it perfectly clear. 
During the straining the edges of the strainer should 






110 COL AT ION AND FILTRATION 

never be allowed to hang over the edge of the frame 
or funnel, as the liquid will be carried over the edges 
by capillary attraction. 

Felt is used for the filtration of large quantities of 
syrup, elixirs, oils, and melted fats. Cone-shaped felt 
filters may be obtained ready for use. The felt filter 
devised by W. R. Warner, for the filtration of oils, 
may also be used for the filtration of other liquids, 
as it combines pressure filtration with upward filtration. 
It consists of two tanks, one above the other. The 
substance to be filtered is placed in the upper tank, 

Fig. 72 




Tenaculum. 



from which it passes through a tube to the lower tank, 
then upward through the filter, which is firmly held 
between two rings. 

Absorbent cotton placed in the neck of a funnel is 
convenient and economical for straining small quan- 
tities of liquid in manufacturing or prescription work. 

Filters. — Filters are made of paper pulp, asbestos, 
glass-wool, sand, charcoal, and unglazed earthenware. 
Filter papers are either white or gray in color. The 
latter are sometimes used for filtering colored liquids, 
as fluidextracts and tinctures. Many salts dissolve 



FILTERS 111 

some of the coloring matter from gray filter paper, 
hence, white filter paper only should be used for filter- 
ing such substances. The quality of white filter paper 
is variable. Those best known are French, German, 
Swedish, Scotch, and English. Manufacturers make 
different grades. A firm porous paper is best for phar- 
maceutical uses. Filters for quantitative analysis are 
especially prepared and treated with a mixture of 
hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids to remove inorganic 
substances, in order to obtain a filter as nearly ash free 
as possible. The label of the best grades states the 
amount of ash in each filter. Hardened filters are pre- 
pared by partial nitration of the cellulose with nitric 
acid. They are especially valuable for pressure filtra- 
tion, and when it is desirable to remove the precipitate 
from the filter without loss or contamination with 
particles from the filter itself. Filter papers may be 
purchased in large square sheets or cut in round form 
of different sizes, the latter being preferred. 

Folding Filters. — Filters are folded in various ways. 
The plain filter is the one most commonly used when 
the precipitate is to be collected. It is prepared by 
folding through the middle, the edges of the filter form- 
ing a half circle. This is again folded through the 
centre, so that the edges form a quarter circle. The 
filter is then opened and placed in the funnel so that 
one thickness of paper will rest on one side of the 
funnel and three thicknesses upon the other. 

Rother's filter is also called the economical filter, 
because two filters are made from one round filter by 
cutting it through the centre. Each piece has then 



112 COLATION AND FILTRATION 

one straight edge and one half circle. By folding 
through the centre, a quarter circle and a right angle 
are formed. Fold the cut edges over about one-eighth 
of an inch. Then fold again the same width; open the 
filter and place in the funnel, holding the folds in place 
until it is wet. 

Plaited filters (Fig. 73) have an advantage over 
the plain ones because the entire filter is exposed to the 
action of the liquid. They are folded as follows : Place 
the filter paper flat upon the table and do not remove 
it until all folds are made. Grasp the edge nearest the 
operator and fold it upon the opposite edge, so that the 
edges form a semicircle. Fold again through the centre, 
thus making a fold at right angles to the first one. Now 
open the last fold and fold the two corners to the line 
formed by the second fold, making folds at an angle 
of 45° to the first one made. Open these and make 
folds midway between each of those already formed. 
If all of these have been folded over from the operator 
without removing the filter from the table, the grooves 
formed by the folds will be upon the upper side of the 
paper. Now begin at one edge and plait the filter by 
making folds backward in the opposite direction, one 
between each of those previously made, so that the 
edges of each new fold will be turned upward. The 
filter will then have the appearance of Fig. 74. This 
completes the plaited filter, which may be opened and 
placed in the funnel. When pressing the folds down, 
the pressure should be very light where the lines meet 
at the point, as they tend to weaken the filter, causing 
it to break when the liquid is poured upon it. When 



FILTERS 



113 



pouring liquid upon a filter the stream should strike 
the side, as it tends to puncture the filter if poured 
directly upon the point. 



Fig. 73 




Fig. 74 




Plaited filters. 

R. A. Fessenden's method of folding a filter for 
rapid filtration is as follows: 

8 






114 COLATION AND FILTRATION 

Fold through the centre, open and fold again through 
the centre so that the grooves formed are at right angles 
to those already made and all grooves on the upper 
side. Make one fold backward through the centre 
so that this fold will be between and at an angle of 45° 
to the other folds, but with the edge of the fold in an 
opposite direction. Then open the filter so that the 
upper side will have two opposite edges and four 

Fig. 75 




Plaited filter. 

grooves. Take the two upper edges formed by the 
last fold, bring them together and past each other 
(Fig. 75), so that the remainder of the filter will take 
the form of the funnel. When wet, these folds will 
fall to the sides of the funnel; these should be kept in 
the centre of the funnel, that the liquid may act upon 
the entire surface. Do this by placing between each 
fold the end of a glass rod bent in the form of a hair 
pin. 

Funnels. — When selecting funnels, see that the sides 
of the funnel are straight and at an angle of 60° to 
each other. This is easily v determined by folding an 



CONTINUOUS FILTRATION 115 

ordinary plain filter, which when opened and placed 
inside the funnel should touch at all points. If the 
funnel curves away from the filter or the paper near 
the neck, it leaves the point unprotected. The end 
of the stem should be cut at right angles in order to 
form a point from which the liquid will drop. When 
the filtrate is received in an open vessel the point of 
the funnel should rest against the vessel's side, lest 
the liquid dropping from the funnel upon that in the 
vessel may throw some of it outside and cause it to 
be lost. When filtering a quantity of liquid the funnel 
should be covered to protect from dust and prevent 
evaporation. When filtering volatile liquids into a 
flask or bottle the funnel is sometimes allowed to rest 
upon the bottle without a support. This often closes 
the opening so that the air cannot readily escape, thus 
retarding the flow of the filtrate and sometimes stopping 
it altogether. This may be prevented by placing a 
piece of cord or small roll of filter paper on one side 
between the bottle and the funnel. When filtering 
volatile liquids, cover the funnel with a piece of glass 
to prevent evaporation, and at the same time admit 
sufficient air to secure prompt filtration. 

Continuous Filtration. — When large quantities are to 
be filtered the filter should be kept well filled. This 
is conveniently done by placing the entire menstruum 
in a bottle closed with a perforated cork containing 
a short glass tube, the inner diameter of which is at 
least 35 mm. Cut the outer end of the tube at an angle 
of 45°. Close the tube with the finger and invert the 
bottle over the funnel, in such a position that the end 



116 



COLATION AND FILTRATION 



of the tube is somewhat below the edge of the filter. 
Upon removing the finger, the liquid flows into the 
filter until it rises to the level of the end of the tube. 
This prevents the air from entering the bottle and 
stops the flow until more fluid passes through the 
filter. It will now act automatically. The same 
arrangement is convenient for washing bulky pre- 
cipitates. 

Fig. 76 




Hot- water funnel, with side arm. 



Hot Filtration. — Heat aids the filtration of thick 
and viscous liquids. Hot solutions of salts liable to 
crystallize on cooling, and substances solid at ordinary 
temperatures, as fat, wax, etc., must be filtered while 
hot. This is accomplished by the use of a jacketed 
or hot- water funnel (Figs. 76 and 77). An ordinary 
glass funnel is enclosed in a copper jacket. The space 
between funnel and jacket is filled three-fourths full 



HOT FILTRATION 



117 



of water and heated by a lamp or burner under the 
side arm or ring burner. The hot water rising to 



Fig. 77 




Hot- water funnel with ring burner. 
Fig. 78 




Jacketed funnel for hot water or steam. 



US 



COLATION AND FILTRATION 



the surface causes a continuous circulation. Hot-air 
funnels like Fig. 79 are convenient. They are made 
with double walls between the funnel and the flame, 
the heat passing between the walls as indicated by the 
arrows. 

Fig. 79 




Hot-air funnel. 



Rapid Filtration. — Methods for aiding filtration de- 
pend upon the formation of a partial vacuum in the 
receiver, which is connected with the funnel. In cities 
where water pressure is available a good filter pump or 
aspirator is most convenient. The neck of the funnel 
passes through a perforated cork into the receiver, 



RAPID FILTRATION 



119 



which is connected with the pump by a tube. Filter 
pumps are of various styles, but the principle is the 
same in all. Water is forced through a narrow opening, 
carrying with it air received from a small tube which 
enters the pump at the side and connects with the 
receiver (Figs. 80 and 81). Figs. 82 and 83 show 

Fig. 80 




Chapman's filter pump. 



laboratory glass pumps. When using a water pump, 
if for any reason the water should suddenly cease to 
flow, it will be drawn backward into the receiver. To 
guard against such an accident a bottle should be 
placed between the receiver and the pump. In the 
Chapman pump the valve at c prevents the entrance 



120 



COLATION AND FILTRATION 



Foam 
Richards' filter pump. 



Fig. 82 



Fig. 83 




Geissler's glass filter pump. Muencke's filter pump. 



RAPID FILTRATION 



121 



of water into the receiver. In the absence of water 
pressure an arrangement similar to Fig. 84 may be 
used, or the tube from the receiving flask may be con- 



Fig. 84 




Pressure nitration apparatus. 



122 



COLATION AND FILTRATION 



nected with the top of a bottle or can previously filled 
with water, and having an outlet tube through the 
cork extending to the bottom. If the bottle be placed 
in an elevated position and the outlet connected with 
a tube reaching to the floor, or, better still, into the 
basement, and the flow of water started by suction, a 
partial vacuum will be produced in the bottle which 



Fig. 85 



Fig. 86 





Side-arm flask with funnel. 



Side-arm flask. 



in turn acts as an exhaust to the receiver. A rope and 
pulley may be used for raising the bottle and for lower- 
ing to be filled. In pressure filtration the point of the 
filter must be protected by placing in the funnel a 
small perforated platinum cone. Side arm filtering 
flasks are better than ordinary flasks, from receivers, 
for rapid filtration (Figs. 85 and 86). 

Buechner's funnels (Fig. 87) are convenient for 
filtering liquids through paper pulp or asbestos. The 
bottom of the funnel is flat and finely perforated. This 
supports the filter and at the same time allows the 



RAPID FILTRATION 



123 



liquid to pass through. A good substitute for a Buech- 
ner funnel is a perforated disk placed in an ordinary 
funnel (Fig. 88). When filter paper is used, moisten 
it carefully and press around the edges to prevent 
the precipitate from working underneath the filter. 



Fig. 87 



Fig. 88 





Buechner's funnel. 



Perforated disk in ordinary funnel. 



Paper pulp is easily prepared by placing scraps of 
filter paper in a bottle with a dilute solution of sodium 
hydroxide, agitating until in fine shreds, pouring into 
a funnel and washing until free from alkali. The 
alkali may be omitted if desired, but the pulp will not 
be so fine. 



CHAPTER X. 

DECANTATION. SEPARATION OF IMMISCIBLE 
SOLVENTS. 

Decantation is the process of pouring a liquid from 
one vessel into another for the purpose of separating 
it from some underlying substance, as a precipitate, 
or a heavier immiscible liquid. Decantation is fre- 
quently used for washing bulky precipitates to free 
them from soluble salts. The washing is generally 
completed by thoroughly mixing the precipitate with 
a large volume of water, allowing separation to take 
place, and decanting the supernatant liquid, repeat- 
ing the operation as often as necessary. Some skill 
is required to prevent the liquid from flowing down the 
sides of the vessel. If the rim of the vessel be perfectly 
dry and a moistened glass rod or pencil held against 
the edge of the vessel the liquid will follow the rod. 
Some prefer to grease the rim when the vessel has a 
straight edge or is nearly full. A little practice makes 
the operation easy. A siphon may be used instead of 
decantation to draw off liquids (Fig. 89). Place the 
short arm of the siphon in the liquid, and start the 
liquid by applying suction to the end of the long arm. 
The form illustrated in Fig. 90 is designed to prevent 
the liquid from flowing into the mouth, as the lower 
end is closed with the finger while suction is applied 
to the upper end of the lateral tube. When the siphon 
is filled, the finger is removed and the liquid continues 



SEPARATION OF IMMISCIBLE SOLVENTS 125 



to flow. The same result may be obtained by placing 
a rubber tube over the end of a plain siphon and apply- 
ing suction to the free end of the tube. As soon as the 



Fig. 89 



• Fig. 90 





Plain siphon. 



Glass siphon with lateral suction tube. 
Fig. 91 




Siphon with short arm curved. 



siphon is filled, close the tube by pinching between the 
thumb and finger until it can be removed from the 
siphon, when the liquid will continue to flow. Another 



126 



DECANTATION 



method of starting the siphon is to fill the inverted 
siphon with water and close the end of the long arm 
with the finger. Place the short arm in the liquid, 
remove the finger, and the liquid immediately flows. 
When the ordinary siphon is used, the current pro- 
duced by the flow of the liquid often draws some of 
the precipitate into the siphon, especially when remov- 
ing the last of the supernatant liquid. This may be 
in a measure overcome by using the form illustrated 
in Fig. 91. 

SEPARATION OF IMMISCIBLE SOLVENTS. 

Liquids like ether, chloroform, and benzine when 
mixed with water by agitation and allowed to remain at 
rest soon separate into two layers. 



Fig. 92 



Fig. 93 




Separator, globe shape. 



Separator (Squibb' s). 



SEPARATION OF IMMISCIBLE SOLVENTS 127 

The layers may be easily separated from each other 
by means of a separator or separatory funnel (Figs. 92, 
93, and 94). The liquid is poured into the separator 
and the lower layer drawn off by means of the stop- 
cock. Special separators are made to be used when 

Fig. 94 




Separatory funnel. 



it is necessary to wash a heavier liquid with a lighter 
one, but the same result may be reached by the use 
of two separators. For general use, and especially 
in alkaloidal assay work, either the pear-shaped or 
Squibb's separator (Fig. 93) is recommended. 



CHAPTER XI. 

CLARIFICATION AND DECOLORIZATION. 
CLARIFICATION. 

Liquids frequently contain fine floating particles im- 
possible of removal by ordinary filtration, even when 
double filters are used. Such liquids may frequently be 
clarified by adding magnesium carbonate, precipitated 
calcium phosphate, pumice stone, purified talc, or paper 
pulp. 

The first two are slightly soluble, and may impart 
a slight alkalinity to the liquid. Paper pulp makes 
a good filter, but is a poor clarifying agent. After 
thorough agitation with the clarifying agent the liquid 
is filtered. If the filtrate be not clear it should be 
returned again and again to the funnel until the insoluble 
particles close the pores of the filter. Liquids contain- 
ing albuminous matter may be clarified by boiling. 
This process coagulates the albumin and occludes 
the floating particles. Albumin is sometimes added 
to liquids to clarify them, in the proportion of the 
white of one egg to a gallon of liquid. It is first mixed 
with a small quantity of the liquid, then strained into 
the remainder, and the whole thoroughly agitated. 
The liquid is then gradually boiled and skimmed. Do 
not use albumin in liquids containing substances 



DECOLORIZA TION 129 

with which it is incompatible, as alcohol, tannic acid, 
lead, copper, and mercury salts. Fruit juices are 
clarified by partial fermentation. The alcohol formed 
causes a precipitation of the albuminous and mucilagi- 
nous matters. Alcohol is sometimes added to liquids 
for this same purpose. 



DECOLORIZATION. 

Many organic substances may be decolorized by 
agitating their solutions with purified animal charcoal, 
and filtering. In some cases the solutions are filtered 
through beds of animal charcoal. However, it should 
be remembered that decolorization is attended with 
considerable loss of the substance, as this also is ab- 
sorbed by the charcoal. The best charcoal is obtained 
from blood or bones, and is itself purified by treating 
with dilute hydrochloric acid to remove soluble inorganic 
salts. Charcoal, wholly free from inorganic salts, is 
not a good decolorizer. Animal charcoal in granular 
condition gives the best results. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PRECIPITATION. 

Precipitation is the process by which substances in 
solution are caused to assume an insoluble form. That 
which is thrown out of solution is termed the precipi- 
tate; that which causes the precipitation is called the 
precipitant Precipitation may be produced in various 
ways. 

Causes of Precipitation. — Change of temperature may 
cause precipitation. Cold reduces the solubility of 
most substances, hence many saturated solutions 
deposit on reduction of temperature. Fluidextracts 
often precipitate on change of temperature. Few 
substances are more soluble in cold than in hot water, 
therefore, in these cases, an elevation of temperature 
will cause precipitation of the saturated solution. This 
is true of calcium hydroxide, calcium citrate, calcium 
sulphate, and a few others. 

Change of menstruum may also cause precipitation. 
For instance, water precipitates alcoholic solutions of 
resins and many oils, while alcohol precipitates aqueous 
solutions of gums and of many salts. 

Chemical change causes precipitation by the forma- 
tion of new compounds which are insoluble, as, when 
a solution of silver nitrate is mixed with a solution of 
sodium chloride, an insoluble silver chloride is pre- 



PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF PRECIPITATES 131 

cipitated. Solutions of silver salts with organic com- 
pounds, and many other substances, are precipitated 
by light, which acts as a reducing agent, and thus 
causes chemical change. 

Physical Character of Precipitates. — The physical 
appearance of precipitates is designated as light, heavy, 
amorphous, crystalline, granular, flocculent, and gelatin- 
ous. The condition under which precipitation takes 
place often determines its physical character. For 
example, hot concentrated solutions yield dense pre- 
cipitates, while cold dilute solutions yield light pre- 
cipitates. Heavy magnesium carbonate is obtained 
by mixing hot concentrated solutions of magnesium 
sulphate and sodium carbonate and evaporating to 
dryness before washing out the sulphate. The light 
magnesium carbonate is made from cold dilute solutions. 
If lead iodide be precipitated from a hot solution, it is 
crystalline, but if precipitated from a cold solution, it 
is amorphous. In the precipitation of ferric hydroxide 
the solution should be cold and dilute. Otherwise, 
the precipitate is apt to contain oxyhydrate. The 
order in which solutions are mixed frequently deter- 
mines the character of the precipitate. To obtain a 
yellow mercurous iodide, the potassium iodide must 
be slowly added to the mercurous nitrate, so that an 
excess of the nitrate is always present. If the operation 
be reversed, a green iodide will be formed. Generally 
it is inadvisable to use a large excess of the precipitant, 
as many precipitates are more or less soluble in solutions 
of other salts. In the manufacture of mercuric iodide, 
the Pharmacopoeia directs that the solutions of mercuric 



132 PRECIPITATION 

chloride and potassium iodide shall be simultaneously 
poured in thin streams into water, because if either of 
the two solutions be in excess, the precipitate will be 
dissolved. Stir the liquid constantly during precipita- 
tion, as impurities are less liable to be occluded in the 
precipitate. When the precipitate retains a large 
proportion of water it is termed a magma. 

Precipitation is best conducted in deep precipitating 
jars especially constructed for that purpose. In the 
absence of these, deep beakers may be used, but the end 
of the stirring rod ought to be capped with rubber to 
prevent the breaking of the beakers. 

Washing Precipitates. — When possible, it is best to 
allow the precipitate to remain in the liquid for some 
hours or longer, as the precipitate becomes more dense 
and is more easily washed. The clear supernatant 
liquid may be removed by a siphon or by decantation. 
The precipitate is purified by continued washing, which 
may be accomplished by adding fresh portions of 
water and decanting after the precipitate subsides. 
Or it may also be done by pouring the precipitate 
upon a filter or strainer and washing by the addition 
of water. In many cases it is advisable to combine 
the two methods. When the impurities are difficult 
of removal by washing on the filter or strainer, the 
precipitate should be returned to the jar and thoroughly 
stirred with a fresh portion of water and then returned 
to the filter. In case the precipitate is in the form of 
a magma, the water may be removed by gentle but oft- 
repeated pressure. This is more effectual than sudden 
forcible expression. When the precipitate is bulky 



FRACTIONAL PRECIPITATION 133 

and easily oxidized, or absorbs carbon dioxide from 
the atmosphere, as in the manufacture of magnesium 
magma, the wash water should be freshly boiled and 
the J. Boehm's method of washing employed. Place 
the mixture in a large stoppered percolator, and cover 
the top with a filter paper placed between two pieces 
of well-washed muslin, tied securely over the top. 
Invert the percolator in a vessel and pour water through 
the neck of the percolator until the precipitate is washed. 
Pressure filtration may be easily combined with this 
method by connecting the inverted percolator with 
the neck of a second percolator, in an upright position, 
by means of a tube. The wash water is then placed 
in the second percolator, which is elevated until the 
desired pressure is obtained. 

Fractional Precipitation. — Fractional precipitation is 
sometimes used to purify or separate two or more 
substances. In such cases the precipitant should be 
added in small quantities, and the precipitate separated 
after each addition. This method is not satisfactory, 
and is only used in special cases where other methods 
cannot be employed. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

COMMINUTION 

Under this head we may group all the methods 
whereby drugs are mechanically subdivided. The 
method of comminution varies with the character of 
the drug and the object to be attained. Vegetable drugs 
are seldom collected by the pharmacist or chemist 
except for special investigation. The cultivated drugs 
are usually grown and collected under careful super- 
vision, while those growing wild are generally collected 
by irresponsible parties. In either case they are 
thoroughly dried to prevent decomposition, but in a 
moist atmosphere drugs frequently absorb so much 
moisture that they become soft and pliable. Hence 
they must be dried again to make them brittle before 
they can be ground or powdered. They should also 
be garbled before grinding. Garbling is the removal 
of all foreign substances, as stems, mouldy or decayed 
parts, dust from roots, epidermis from barks, etc.; in 
short, everything that reduces the quality of the drug. 
Drugs should be kept in cool, dry rooms protected from 
light. Only those drugs readily attacked by insects 
should be placed in air-tight containers, or those possess- 
ing strong odoriferous principles easily lost, or those 
liable to contaminate other drugs. 



CONTUSION 135 

Comminution aids solution by exposing a greater 
surface to the action of the solvent, whether it be in the 
laboratory or in the stomach. Before vegetable drugs 
can be thoroughly extracted they must be brought into 
such a fine state of division that the solvent can act 
upon each particle. Drugs of loose, coarse structure 
may be coarsely ground, while those of close, dense 
structure should be reduced to fine powder. Few 
pharmacists grind or powder their own drugs, but depend 
upon the drug miller for their supply. Doubtless the 
miller has the advantage of special mills for various 
kinds of drugs, but adulterations of various kinds are 
more difficult to detect in powder than in the whole 
drug. Unscrupulous millers frequently take advantage 
of this fact to palm off worthless or wormeaten drugs. 
Many coarse or fibrous stems must be cut in pieces 
before they can be ground. It is a mistake to under- 
take to grind the drug fine by running it through the 
mill but once. Time and labor will be saved by grind- 
ing coarse first, and running it through a second or 
even a third time if necessary, setting the plates a little 
closer each time. It is also advisable to sift the drug 
each time, returning only the coarse portion to the mill. 

CONTUSION. 

Deep iron or brass mortars are used for the contusion 
or bruising jof- small quantities of drugs. The best 
results are obtained when only a thin layer is placed 
between the mortar and pestle. To prevent the loss 
of powder when contusing a dry substance, the mortar 



136 COMMINUTION 

should be covered with a pasteboard having a hole 
in the centre to receive the pestle. When grinding or 
powdering poisonous drugs, like corrosive sublimate, 
the mouth and nose of the operator should be covered 
with a piece of moist muslin or moist sponge. To 
prevent jarring when contusing drugs, place the mortar 
upon a firm foundation unconnected with cases or 
work tables. The placing of the mortar in a box or 
barrel of sand has been recommended. Glass, wedge- 
wood, or porcelain mortars should not be used for 
comminution. 

TRITURATION. 

Trituration is the process of reducing a substance 
to powder by grinding or rubbing in a mortar with a 
pestle. For this purpose, shallow porcelain or wedge- 
wood mortars are used. The pestle is held firmly in 
the hand, and given a circular motion, beginning in 
the centre and gradually increasing the circle toward 
the outside of the mortar. Then, reversing, work 
toward the centre, and repeat the operation until the 
required degree of fineness is secured. Always hold 
the pestle in such a position that the handle is at right 
angles to that part of the surface of the mortar with 
which it is in contact. If the drug be inclined to pack 
or to adhere to the mortar and pestle, remove it fre- 
quently with a spatula. Trituration is also applied 
to the mixing of powders in a mortar. Wedgewood 
mortars are porous, and should never be used with 
drugs that are readily absorbed or produce a stain. 
When mortars become stained or saturated with power- 



LEVIGATION 137 

ful odors, they should be washed with a little potassium 
or sodium dichromate and sulphuric acid. The handles 
of wedgewood pestels are usually of wood, and fre- 
quently become loosened. In this case they should be 
warmed, the cement removed, and the handle reset 
with a fused mixture of shellac, two parts ; yellow wax, 
one part; and balsam fir, one part. 

PULVERIZATION BY INTERVENTION. 

Many substances not easily powdered alone may 
be readily pulverized by the intervention of some 
foreign substance. Camphor and boric acid may be 
more easily powdered by the addition of a little alcohol, 
which readily evaporates when pulverization is com- 
pleted. Some insoluble substances may be powdered 
by trituration with potassium sulphate, which may be 
removed later by dissolving in water. For the purpose 
of aiding the solution of iodine, triturate it with an equal 
weight of sand. Some metals are granulated by fusing 
and pouring into water, or by agitating the fused 
metal with powdered chalk, or, as in the case of phos- 
phorus, melting under water and agitating until cold. 

LEVIGATION. 

Levigation is the process of reducing inorganic sub- 
stances to powder by trituration in a mortar with a 
liquid with which they are insoluble. A sufficient 
quantity of liquid is used to form a thin paste and the 
trituration continued until perfectly smooth. 



138 COMMINUTION 



PORPHYRIZATION. 

Porphyrization is like levigation, except that a stone 
slab and a muller take the place of the mortar and 
pestle. 

MILLS. 

Mills are generally used for grinding vegetable drugs. 
Quite inexpensive and very satisfactory small mills 
may now be obtained. The best small mill is the 
Quaker City, No. 4 (Fig. 95). It grinds rapidly and 

Fig. 95 




No. 4 Quaker mill. 

is easily cleaned. This mill may be purchased in larger 
sizes if desired. In practically all the hand mills the 
drug is ground between two chilled-iron castings, 
with concentric rows of sharp teeth. One of the plates 
is stationary, while the other is made to revolve. In 
the Enterprise (Fig. 96) the plates are vertical, while 



MILLS 139 

in the Swift (Fig. 97) and the Hance (Fig. 98) the 
plates are horizontal. In addition to the larger sizes 
of hand mills already referred to, there is a variety of 
special mills run by power. Mead's disintegrator 
(Figs. 99 and 100) consists of a vertical revolving steel 

Fig. 96 




Enterprise drug mill (open). 

plate to which are riveted hardened steel beaters that 
drive the drug with great force against a corrugated 
plate until the drug is fine enough to pass between the 
revolving plate and the corrugated surface. It is 
then caught by beaters placed upon the opposite side 
and forced against a screen. This screen is made 



140 



COMMINUTION 



of square steel bars eaeh two inches long, and placed 
at right angles to the revolving plate in such a position 
that the drug is forced against the sharp angles of the 



Fig. 97 




New B Swift mill (open). 



bars. When it is sufficiently fine to pass between the 
bars it is discharged from the mill. The steel plate 
makes three thousand revolutions per minute and the 
mill grinds from 150 to 600 pounds of drug per hour. 
The Bogardus Eccentric Mill. — This mill has two 
horizontal grinding plates revolving rapidly in the 
same direction, upon centres about two inches apart. 
This peculiar motion both twists and grinds the drug. 



MILLS 



141 



These mills are supplied with extra plates of different 
degrees of fineness, and grind anything from coarse 
drugs to the hardest seeds or stones. 



Fig. 98 





Hance's drug mill 



142 



COMMINUTION 



Chaser Mills. — Chaser mills are so called because they 
consist of two large stone wheels following each other 



Fig. 99 




Fig. 100 




Mead s disintegrator, a, section of steel screen; b, section of corrugated 
ring; c, steel disk with beaters attached. 

around a common centre. These revolve upon a sta- 
tionary stone, and the drug is reduced to powder by 



MILLS 



143 



crushing and by the twisting motion produced when 
a broad wheel is made to turn in a narrow space. When 
the material becomes very, fine it rises, and by cen- 
trifugal force is carried against the sides and falls to 
the bottom. 

Fig. 101 




Universal food chopper. 1, body; 2, forcer; 3, reversible cutter, 
coarse, medium, fine; 4, pulverizer; 5, crank; 6, clamp screw; 7, thumb 
nut; 8, nut butter grinder; 10, handle screw and washer stuffing attachment. 

Buhr Stone Mills. — Buhr stone mills are similar in 
construction to those used in flour mills. 

Ball or Pebble Mills. — Ball or pebble mills consist of 
a jar or cylindrical vessel containing several flint or 
porcelain balls. A peculiar hard pebble is also used 
for the same purpose. The substance to be powdered 



144 COMMINUTION 

is placed in the jar, which is securely closed and caused 
to revolve. The material is ground between the rolling 
balls as well as between the balls and the jar. 

Mills should be thoroughly cleaned after use by 
running through a little clean sawdust, and afterward 
brushing or wiping out any remaining particles. In 
some cases it may even be necessary to remove the 
plates and wash them in hot water, after which dry 
rapidly to prevent rusting. Fresh vegetable drugs, 
and vanilla, or those apt to clog an ordinary mill, may 
be run through a meat cutter (Fig. 101). 



SIFTING. 

In the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations 
it is necessary that ground or powdered drugs should 
be of a uniform degree of fineness. This is accomplished 
by grinding the drug until it will pass through a sieve 
of the required fineness, designated by the number of 
meshes to the linear inch. Those in common use are 
Nos. 20 (coarse), 40 (moderately coarse), 50 (moderately 
fine), 60 (fine), and 80 (very fine). As the size of the 
openings between the wires is affected by the size of 
the wire used, the Pharmacopoeia now requires that 
a wire of a given gauge number shall be used in the 
manufacture of each number of sieve. 1 

Some portions of a drug are brittle and easily reduced 
to powder, while other portions of the same drug are 
tough, fibrous, and difficult to grind. In such cases, 

1 Introductory Notes, U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 



SIFTING 145 

when a uniform powder is desired, the finer particles 
are removed by sifting each time the drug is passed 
through the mill, and only the coarser particles returned 
to be reground. 

The proper motion to be given a sieve is best learned 
by experience, but force should never be used, as 
it not only stretches the wire and bags the sieve, but it 

Fig. 102 




Jones' mixer and sifter. 



increases the size of the mesh. Mechanical sieves 
of various kinds have been devised. Probably the 
most convenient small apparatus is the combined 
Jones mixer and sifter (Fig. 102). The sieve is placed 
in the bottom of the cylinder and the drug continued 
in motion by revolving fans and brushes. When used 
as a mixer the sieve is covered. It is made in 3 sizes 
to hold from 6 to 25 pounds. 
10 



146 COMMINUTION 



ELUTRIATION. 



Elutriation is the separation of a substance into 
different degrees of fineness by thoroughly mixing 
with water, and after the coarser particles have settled , 
the supernatant liquid is decanted or drawn off. This 
is allowed to stand until the next coarser particles 
have settled. By repeating this operation, powders 
of various degrees of fineness may be obtained. Tro- 
ciscation is the method used in the formation of drop- 
chalk from the magma formed by the elutriation of 
crushed or ground chalk. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

SOLUTIONS. 

A solution is a homogeneous liquid formed by the 
union of one substance with another. This union may 
occur between a solid and a liquid, as the solution of 
salt or sugar in water, or between a gas and a liquid, 
as in the solution of ammonia gas in water or alcohol. 
It may also occur between two liquids, as glycerin in 
water or alcohol, or between two solids, as chloral 
and camphor. The term solvent is applied to the 
substance causing liquefaction. When a solvent has 
absorbed as much of any substance as it will retain 
under normal conditions, it is said to be saturated, and 
the product is termed a saturated solution. A solution 
saturated with one salt may still dissolve a very large 
amount of another salt, and in some cases one salt 
will aid in the solution of another. Corrosive sublimate 
is sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in 
a solution of ammonium chloride. It sometimes hap- 
pens that a solution saturated at a high temperature 
will on cooling, without agitation, retain all the sub- 
stance in solution. However, if jarred, it will deposit 
or crystallize rapidly. Such a solution is termed super- 
saturated. The degree of solubility is commonly 
expressed in parts by weight, as, one part of sodium 
bromide is soluble in 1.7 parts of water, or in 12.5 



148 SOLUTIONS 

parts of alcohol at 25° C. When a large amount of 
substance dissolves quickly, it is said to be very soluble, 
but when little is dissolved, it is called sparingly soluble. 

Two kinds of solutions are generally recognized. 
They are physical or simple solutions, and chemical 
or complex solutions. Simple solutions are those in 
which solution takes place without chemical change, 
and the substance can be recovered in its original con- 
dition. A solution of sugar in water is an example of a 
physical or simple solution. The term chemical solution 
is applied to solutions following chemical action, and 
the substance in solution is wholly different from the 
original. This term will doubtless continue to be used, 
though incorrect. Mercury is insoluble in water, but 
nitric acid acts upon it to form a nitrate of mercury, 
and the resulting solution is not a solution of mercury 
in nitric acid, but a solution of the nitrate in water. 

Reduction of temperature always takes place when 
solids are dissolved without chemical change, but 
chemical action causes an elevation of temperature. 
The fact that an elevation of temperature takes place 
during the solution of anhydrous salts is due to the 
fact that part of the water unites with the salt to replace 
the water of crystallization, and the heat produced is 
greater than that absorbed by the solution. 

Aids to Solution. — The more perfect the contact 
between the substance and the solvent the more rapid 
the solution. Therefore, trituration hastens solution 
by breaking up the substance which increases the sur- 
face exposed to the action of the solvent, and like 
agitation places fresh portions of the solvent in contact 






CIRCULATORY DISPLACEMENT 149 

with the solid. If sugar be placed in a beaker of water, 
it sinks to the bottom. The water in actual contact 
becomes saturated and owing to its increased density 
remains at the bottom, thus protecting the undissolved 
sugar from the action of the water. But if the mixture 
be stirred or agitated, unsaturated water comes in 
contact with the sugar and it quickly dissolves. Sub- 
stances which agglutinate readily, like acacia and 
the scale salts of iron, should not be finely powdered 
before adding the water. 

Heat generally aids solution. The heated liquid 
rises to the surface, thus causing a circulation which 
brings fresh portions of the liquid into contact with 
the solid. A few substances are less soluble in hot 
than in cold water, as calcium oxide, calcium sulphate, 
and calcium citrate. Sodium sulphate increases in 
solubility until the temperature reaches 34°, when it 
decreases, requiring nearly twice as much water for 
solution at 100° C. as it does at 34° C. Sodium chloride 
is little more soluble in hot than in cold water, requiring 
2.8 parts at 25° C, and 2.5 parts at 100° C. 

Circulatory Displacement. — Circulatory displacement 
is the term applied to the manufacture of solutions by 
confining the substance in a piece of muslin and sus- 
pending it in the top of the liquid. As the substance 
dissolves, it increases the density of the solution and 
sinks to the bottom, bringing fresh liquid in contact 
with the substance, thus producing constant circula- 
tion until the substance is dissolved or the solution 
becomes saturated. Mr. W. C. Alpers has improved 
this method by placing a wooden hook inside the 



150 SOLUTIONS 

muslin. The muslin is thus extended so that the sub- 
stance remains upon the surface of the liquid instead 
of sinking beneath it as the bulk decreases. The same 
result may be obtained by an arrangement similar to 
a dialyzer, except that muslin is used in place of animal 
membrane. (See Dialysis.) In manufacturing and in 
prescription work, where time is an object, the most 
convenient method of preparing solutions without 
heat is to triturate the substance in a mortar with a 
small quantity of the menstruum, until a saturated 
solution is obtained. Then decant and add fresh sol- 
vent, repeating the operation until all is dissolved. 

The Determination of Solubilities. — When the solvent 
is non-volatile, place a convenient quantity of it in a 
test-tube and add an excess of the substance previously 
powdered. Place the test-tube in a water bath heated 
somewhat above the desired temperature. Shake or 
stir frequently for a half-hour, then stopper and allow 
the tube to remain at 25° C. for twenty-four hours 
with occasional agitation. Next filter through a dry 
filter and reject the first portion that came through, 
as the filter may have absorbed some of the substance 
from the solution. From the remainder, collect a 
convenient quantity in a tared weighing bottle and 
weigh. Pour into a tared evaporating dish, rinse the 
bottle thoroughly with distilled water, and pour the 
washing into the evaporating dish. Evaporate to dry- 
ness and weigh. The weight of the solution minus 
the weight of the solid gives the weight of water, which 
divided by the weight of the solid gives the number of 
parts of water required to dissolve one part of the salt. 



LYSIMETER 151 

Lysimeter. — When the solvent is volatile, greater care 
is necessary to prevent evaporation during the pro- 
cesses of filtering and' weighing. This is especially 
true when determining the solubility of a substance 
at the boiling point of a solvent. It may be accurately 
done, however, by means of a simple and convenient 
apparatus called the lysimeter, devised by Dr. Charles 
Rice (Fig. 103). It consists of a glass tube about six 
inches long, contracted near one end. Each end of 
the tube is fitted with a ground-glass stopper. A 
thimble-shaped piece of glass, with an opening in the 
small end, is so ground that it may replace the stopper 
in the contracted end of the tube. To prepare the 
instrument for use, close it at the upper end, place a 
pledget of absorbent cotton in the thimble, which is 
inserted in the lower end of the tube, and hold it in 
position by a piece of platinum wire placed over the 
end of the thimble and around the neck of the tube. 
The lysimeter is then slowly lowered into a large test- 
tube of the boiling solution, containing an excess of 
the substance the solubility of which is to be determined. 
When the instrument has attained the temperature 
of the liquid, the stopper is removed, allowing the 
solution to filter through the cotton into the lysimeter. 
W T hen the solution in the instrument has reached the 
level of the solution in the tube, the upper end is again 
closed, the instrument removed from the solution, and 
inverted. The thimble is also removed and the stopper 
inserted. The lysimeter is then washed with a portion 
of the solvent, cooled, and weighed. The remainder 
of the operation is the same as the preceding. The 



152 



SOLUTIONS 
Fig. 103 






Rice's lysimeter. 



SOLUTION OF GASES 153 

following is a list of the solvents used in pharmacy, 
given in the order of their importance, viz., water, 
alcohol, glycerin, acetone, ether, petroleum benzin, 
chloroform, benzene, and carbon disulphide. The 
solvent power of each will be better understood as we 
study the preparations into which they enter. 1 

Immiscible Solvents. — Solvents that mix in different 
proportions are said to be miscible, while those that 
do not mix are termed immiscible. Water, alcohol, 
glycerin, and acetone are miscible, while water is 
immiscible with all the other solvents, but will dissolve 
small quantities of ether and chloroform. Alcohol 
and acetone are miscible with ether and chloroform. 

Solution of Gases. — A number of important phar- 
maceutical products are solutions of gases in water, 
as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, etc. Most 
gases are somewhat impure as they come from the 
generator, and must be washed by passing them through 
a wash bottle partially filled with water. From the 
wash bottle the gas passes into the receiver, which 
should be surrounded by cold or ice water, as gases 
are more soluble in cold than in hot solvents. The 
gas should be carried to the bottom of the solutions, 
and the flow so regulated that it bubbles slowly through 
the liquid. Occasional agitation of the receiver aids 
solution. On a large scale, the method is made con- 
tinuous by passing the gas through a series of receivers, 
each connected with the other by a tube passing from 

1 For the solubility of various substances, see the United States 
Pharmacopoeia or Seidell, Solubilities of Organic and Inorganic 
Substances. 



154 SOLUTIONS 

the top of the first to the bottom of the second, etc. 
When the first is saturated it is replaced by number 
two and a fresh receiver placed at the end of the line. 

All gases increase the volume of the solvent. Some 
increase the density, as, 40 per cent, hydrochloric acid 
has a specific gravity of 1.1995 at 25° C. Others 
decrease the density, as 35 per cent, ammonium water 
has a specific gravity of 0.8769 at 25° C. 

Percentage Solutions. — When the strengths of solu- 
tions are expressed by per cent., all ingredients must 
be weighed unless it be definitely stated that per cent, 
by volume is intended. And as per cent, means parts 
in a hundred, parts may be represented by any weight 
in any system. A 10 per cent, solution of salt contains 
10 gr. in 100 gr. of the solution, or 10 Gm. in 100 Gm., 
or 10 lbs. in 100 lbs. To prepare two apothecaries ' 
ounces (960 gr.) of a 4 per cent, solution of zinc sulphate 
we must take 0.04 X 960 or 38.4 gr., and dissolve it in 
960 — 38.4 = 921.6 gr. of water. The operation con- 
sists in multiplying the desired quantity by the per cent., 
which gives the amount of substance required. This 
substance is then dissolved in sufficient solvent to 
make the required amount. In practice, the quantity 
ordered is commonly expressed in fluid measure, which 
must be changed to weight in order to calculate the 
weight of substance required. If 4 fl. oz. of a 5 per' 
cent, solution of boric acid in glycerin be required, the 
4 fl. oz. must be changed to weight by multiplying by 
the number of grains in a fluidounce, and then by the 
specific gravity to obtain the weight of the 4 fl. oz. of 
glycerin. ' 



PERCENTAGE SOLUTIONS 155 

4 X 455.7 == 1822.8 gr. of water in 4 fl. oz. 

1822.8 X 1.25 = 2278.5 gr. of glycerin in 4 fl. oz. 

2278.5 X 0.05 = 113.9 gr. of boric acid required. 

2278.5 - 113.9 = 2164.6 gr. of glycerin. 

The above does not give exactly 4 fl. oz., as there is 
no exact method of calculating the volume occupied by 
the boric acid, but this method is sufficiently accurate 
for practical purposes. For further work upon per- 
centage solutions, and alligation applied to percentage 
solutions, see Arithmetic of Pharmacy (Stevens). The 
physiological salt solution, sometimes called normal 
solution, which is used by physicians, contains about 
6 per cent, of salt. Normal solutions used in volu- 
metric analysis, and sometimes used as test reagents, 
are based upon molecular equivalents. (See United 
States Pharmacopeia, p. 544.) 



CHAPTER XV. 

EXTRACTION. 

Extraction is the term applied to any method used 
for the separation of the soluble from the insoluble 
constituents of plants. 

Maceration, as used in pharmacy, is the process of 
moistening a drug or placing it in a liquid, and allowing 
it to remain for a given time at the temperature of the 
room. 

Digestion is maceration at an elevated temperature — 
between 30° and 40° for pharmaceutical purposes. 

Infusions and decoctions are terms applied to certain 
classes of pharmaceutical preparations (see p. 194). 

Maceration or digestion and subsequent filtration 
are processes used to extract drugs that form an 
adhesive mass when moistened with a solvent, as aloes, 
asafetida, and benzoin. In foreign countries macera- 
tion and expression are used almost exclusively for the 
extraction of drugs. The points in favor of this 
method are, that it is more convenient, requires less 
skill, and the product is more uniform than that 
secured by percolation. The objection is that the drug 
is not completely exhausted, as the liquid remaining 
in the drug is as strong medicinally as the portion 
removed. 



PERCOLATION 157 

PERCOLATION. 

Percolation is the method of separating the soluble 
from the insoluble constituents of the drug by passing 
the liquid through the drug. This method is often 
called displacement, because the solvent as it becomes 
saturated flows downward by virtue of its own gravity, 
and the pressure of the liquid above, less the capillary 
force of the powder, and is replaced by a fresh solvent. 
The principle of the method has been for centuries 
applied in the manufacture of lye from wood ashes, 
and was termed leaching or lixiviation. Count Real 
was the first to apply the principle to the extraction of 
drugs. In 1833 his method was modified by M. 
Boullay, a French pharmacist. The United States 
Pharmacopeia was the first to adopt it. This was 
accomplished in 1840, mainly through the efforts of 
Prof. Proctor and A. Duhamel. It remained, however, 
for Prof. Graham to make the method practical, which 
was done by requiring that the drug be of uniform 
fineness and thoroughly and uniformly moistened 
before packing in the apparatus called the percolator. 
The solvent placed upon the drug is called the men- 
struum; after it passes through the drug it is called the 
percolate. After the drug is exhausted it is called the marc. 

Percolators. — Percolators are made of glass, tin, and 
tinned copper. A variety of percolators have been 
manufactured, varying in shape from the funnel or 
conical to the cylindrical form. The conical percolator 
is sometimes recommended for the manufacturers of 



158 EXTRACTION 

weak tinctures, and for drugs apt to swell, especially 
with aqueous menstruum. The best form of percolator 
for general use is nearly cylindrical, the top slightly 
wider than at the bottom, which is somewhat funnel- 
shaped. The Pharmacopoeia directs that the neck 
should gradually become narrower toward the orifice, 

Fig. 104 Fig. 105 





U. S. P. percolator. Oldberg percolator. 

so that a perforated cork may be inserted from within 
(Fig. 104). A better form is one in which the neck 
gradually widens from the shoulder to the orifice, in 
such manner that the perforated cork may be inserted 
from without, as in the Oldberg percolator (Fig. 105). 
Insert a short glass tube in the cork so that the end of 
the tube shall be even with the upper end, but not 



PERCOLATION 159 

project beyond the cork. Let the tube project about 
4 cm. below the cork. To this attach a piece of rubber 
tubing one and one-fourth times the length of the perco- 
lator, and to its lower end attach a short U-shaped tube. 

Preparation of the Drug for Percolation. — Grind the 
drug uniformly, the degree of fineness depending upon 
the character of the drug. If the drug be of a close, 
dense structure, it must be finely ground that the men- 
struum may penetrate every particle of the cell forma- 
tion. Drugs of coarse, porous structure do not require 
to be so finely ground. In the case of official drugs the 
fineness of the drug as well as the amount of menstruum 
used in moistening are given. Moisten by placing in a 
basin or evaporating dish, adding the required amount 
of menstruum and stirring with a spatula or rod until 
evenly mixed. It is then passed through a coarse sieve 
to break up any lumps and to insure uniform moisten- 
ing. Cover closely to prevent evaporation, and allow it 
to stand from one-half to two hours, that the drug may 
swell. A piece of purified cotton is placed in the bottom 
of the percolator. This acts as a filter and prevents 
small particles from closing the tube. 

Process of Percolation. — The drug is then placed in 
the percolator, the operator being careful to distribute 
the drug evenly. A scoop or large watch crystal is con- 
venient for this purpose. Some prefer to place the 
moistened powder on a glazed paper, and, bringing 
the sides of the paper together, take it in one hand, 
holding the percolator in the other, pour the drug slowly 
in, constantly revolving the percolator. This insures an 
even distribution of both coarse and fine particles over 



160 EXTRACTION 

the surface. The Pharmacopoeia directs the operator to 
place the entire quantity of the drug in the percolator as 
soon as moistened, and after standing the required time 
apply pressure to the top of the drug. This method is 
good for small quantities, as in the making of tinctures, 
but for larger quantities, especially when deep perco- 
lators are used, the result is unsatisfactory, as the drug 
in the bottom of the percolator is practically without 
pressure. 

A better method is to add the drug in divided portions, 
packing each portion separately. Pack the first portion 
very lightly, increasing the pressure with the subsequent 
portions as the top is approached. In any case, the 
degree of pressure depends upon the character of the 
drug, the degree of fineness, and the kind of menstruum 
used. A drug with porous structure and in coarse 
powders should be packed more firmly than one possess- 
ing a fine, dense structure. Alcohol has a contracting 
and hardening effect upon vegetable tissue, while water 
causes the drug to swell. Hence, when a strong alcoholic 
menstruum is used the drug should be packed more 
firmly than when a weak or aqueous menstruum is 
employed. Let the pressure be uniform over the entire 
surface. Should greater pressure be applied to one side 
than to the other, the menstruum naturally takes the 
course of least resistance and flows unevenly through the 
mass. A cork on the end of a stick or a strong glass rod 
is convenient for packing. After packing, cover with a 
close-fitting piece of filter paper held in place by a 
glass stopper or pieces of broken glass. Add the men- 
struum through a funnel, or in any manner that will 



. PERCOLATION 161 

not disturb the drug. If the percolator be properly 
packed, the menstruum passes slowly and evenly through 
the drug. When the percolate reaches the bottom of the 
percolator, fasten the lower end of the tube to the top 
of the percolator and cover to prevent evaporation. 
Allow the whole to stand and macerate during the 
required length of time, after which percolation is 
started by lowering the tube until the percolate drops 
at the rate of from two to five drops per minute for each 
1000 Gm. of drug when manufacturing fluidextracts 
or extracts. But when a much larger proportion of 
menstruum to drug is employed, the rate of flow may 
be increased to ten or fifteen drops per minute. 

Do not receive the percolate in open graduates, as too 
large a surface is exposed to evaporation. Specially 
graduated receiving jars may be obtained, or may be 
easily made by pasting a strip of paper on the outside of 
an ordinary bottle, and graduating by measuring into 
the bottle definite volumes of the liquid. Keep the 
surface of the drug constantly covered with menstruum; 
otherwise air enters the drug, and when fresh menstruum 
is applied the air escapes and forms fissures through 
which the menstruum flows without exhausting the 
drug. A convenient method for insuring a constant 
supply of menstruum and, at the same time, a constant 
pressure upon percolator, is to employ the method given 
for continuous filtration (see page 115). If the per- 
colation has been properly conducted, the first percolate 
is nearly saturated, and when the percolation is com- 
plete the drug is practically exhausted, in which case 
the final percolate does not materially differ from the 
11 



162 EXTRACTION 

menstruum in taste, odor, or color. However, in many 
drugs the active constituent is far more soluble in the 
menstruum used than is the coloring matter. In such 
cases we may determine, either by the taste or by some 
suitable test, whether the percolation be complete, as in 
case of resinous drugs. When the percolate no longer 
shows cloudiness with water, the drug is exhausted. 
Odor is of little value except in a few cases of odor- 
iferous drugs. When the menstruum is not specified, 
the rule should be to select a menstruum having power 
to dissolve the greatest amount of active constituent 
with the least amount of inert material, and this requires 
a thorough knowledge of the nature and constituents 
of the drug. 

The marc, after exhaustion, is always saturated with 
the menstruum and is of sufficient value to pay for 
recovery. One method is to recover only that which can 
be obtained by expression. Another is to place the 
contents of the percolator in a still and recover by 
distillation. 

Re percolation. — Repercolation is the process of obtain- 
ing a concentrated extract by using a partially saturated 
menstruum upon a fresh portion of drug. This method 
was devised by Dr. Squibb for the manufacture of 
fluidextracts. The method will be considered in detail 
under fluidextracts. 

Fractional Percolation. — Fractional percolation is the 
term applied to a modification of repercolation, the 
object being the same. 1 

1 See Diehl's method for the manufacture of fluidextracts, p. 239. 






PERCOLATION 163 

Continuous Percolation. — Continuous percolation is 
the process of extracting a drug with a small volume of 
volatile menstruum. The percolate is received in a 
flask placed over a steam or water bath. The liquid 
is vaporized and passes through a tube to a reflux 
condenser placed above the percolator, in which the 
vapors are condensed and returned to the percolator. 
By this means the menstruum is used again and again 
until the drug is exhausted. 

Soxhlet's extraction apparatus (Fig. 63, p. 94) is 
convenient for small quantities of drugs. In this extrac- 
tion the percolation is intermittent. The distillate 
collects in the extractor until it rises somewhat above 
the top of the side tube, when the pressure causes the 
percolate to flow through the tube, which then acts as a 
siphon to empty the extractor. 

Percolation of Volatile Liquids. — When percolating 
with extremely volatile liquids like ether, it is desirable 
to have the apparatus air-tight to prevent loss by evap- 
oration; also to guard against fire. In Fig. 106 the 
side tube permits the air to pass from the receiver to 
the top of the percolator, while in Fig. 107 the air passes 
through a tube in the centre of the percolator. 

Squibb's Well-tube Percolator. — The well-tube per- 
colator (Fig. 108) is a simple arrangement by which 
any suitable jar of any size may serve as a percolator. 
Place several pieces of flannel or some absorbent cotton 
in the bottom of the jar. Also place a large glass tube 
in the centre, and some flannel or cotton around the 
bottom to prevent particles of the drug from entering 
the tube. The moistened drug is then packed around 



164 



EXTRACTION 



the tube and covered with menstruum, as in ordinary 
percolation. When the menstruum is placed on the 



Fig. 106 



Fig. 107 




500 



Glass percolator for use with 
volatile menstruum. 



Tin percolator for volatile 
liquids. 



PERCOLATIOX 



165 



drug it passes through and enters the bottom of the 
well tube, rising until it is on a level with the top of the 
menstruum in the percolator. The top of the well is 
closed with a perforated cork through which passes a 



Fig. 108 




Squibb' s well-tube percolator. 



small glass tube, bent as shown in the illustration. 
By applying suction to the outer end of the tube it is 
filled by the liquid from the well, after which it continues 
to act as a siphon. The rate of flow may be regulated 
by raising or lowering the tube in the well. The upward 



166 EXTRACTION 

curve given to the outer end of the tube prevents the 
siphon from being emptied, as the curved end is a little 
higher than the end of the siphon in the well. The 
percolate ceases to flow when the surface of the liquid 
in the well is level with the top of the upturned tube. 

Pressure Percolation. — In pressure percolation the 
drug is moistened and at once firmly packed in a special 
percolator. An adjustable cover is placed upon the 
drug and securely fastened in position. The inventors 
claim that when the drug expands the particles are so 
forced against each other that all intervening spaces are 
closed, so that the menstruum when applied must pass 
through the particles instead of around them. The 
menstruum is supplied from a reservoir suspended from 
the ceiling in such manner that the percolator receives 
the pressure of a column of liquid ten or more feet in 
height. Doubtless the first pressure percolator was 
that used by Count Real, modifications and improve- 
ments of which have been made by Anderson, Berry, 
Lentz, Rosenwasser, and Schmit. By attaching to the 
lower end of the Anderson percolator a tube long enough 
to extend to the floor or even to the basement, an addi- 
tional, force may be obtained. Hence the name, 
"double pressure percolator." 

Expression. — In the manufacture of galenical prepa- 
rations by percolation or by maceration a large amount 
of solvent remains in the marc. Most of this solvent 
may be recovered by subjecting the marc to strong 
pressure. Fig. 109 illustrates the ordinary tincture 
press. It consists of an outer metallic vessel with an 
opening at the bottom to discharge the expressed liquid 



PERCOLATION 



167 



There is also an inner perforated cylinder. All parts in 
contact with the drug should be thoroughly tinned to 
prevent rusting, or the action of tannic acid. When 
ready to use, a straining cloth is placed inside the 
cylinder, the marc added, firmly packed, and the cloth 
folded evenly over the top. A metal plate is placed over 
and in contact with this and pressure gradually applied 

Fig. 109 




Tincture press. 



by turning the screw downward. A little time should 
elapse that the liquid may flow out of the drug before 
applying additional pressure. 

In the enterprise spiral press (Fig. 110) the marc 
is placed directly in the hopper and is carried forward 
by the tapering screw. The liquid passes out through 
a perforated plate in the bottom, while the marc is dis- 
charged at the small end of the press. The exit may be 



168 



EXTRACTION 



opened or closed by a thumb screw, thus increasing or 
decreasing the pressure. This press is sometimes 
called a fruit press, as it is largely used for the 
expression of fruit juices. 

Centrifugal machines are extensively used for the 
separation of liquids from solids. The substance is 
placed within a perforated cylinder making several 

Fig. 110 







Enterprise press. 



thousand revolutions per minute, which forces the liquid 
through the perforations into the outer chamber. Cen- 
trifugal separators of various shapes and sizes may be 
purchased, for hand or power use. 

Lever, wedge, and double screw presses are now no 
longer used in pharmacy. Powerful knee presses and 
hydraulic presses are useful in manufacturing houses, 
but require no description here. 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

CRYSTALLIZATION. 

Many substances, when passing from gaseous or liquid 
condition to a solid state, assume definite forms with 
plain faces and angles. Such substances are said to be 
crystalline, while bodies without definite form are termed 
amorphous. All crystalline bodies have their own 
peculiar forms, and these forms have been the subject 
of scientific study. This study has resulted in the 
division of these forms into six general classes: The 
regular, tetragonal, hexagonal, rhombic, monoclinic, and 
triclinic forms. A thorough study of these classes 
requires more space than is allowed in a work of this 
character, and the student is referred to Krauss' Essen- 
tials of Crystallography, Dana's Mineralogy, and E. 
Kopp's Krystallographie. 

Crystallization takes place under various conditions. 
Crystals are formed by sublimation, by fusion and cool- 
ing, by precipitation, and by deposition from solutions. 
The more slowly crystallization takes place the larger 
and more beautiful the crystalline form. 

Depositions. — Depositions from solutions is the 
method most frequently employed in crystallization, 
and is commonly used for the purpose of purification. 
One method is to make a saturated solution and allow 
it to evaporate spontaneously, when the crystals form 



170 CRYSTALLIZA TION 

slowly. A more common method is to prepare a super- 
saturated solution by the aid of heat, and when the 
temperature of the solution has reached that of the 
surrounding atmosphere and allowed to remain for a 
time, crystallization is completed. The remaining 
solution is known as the mother liquor. It may be 
decanted and concentrated, when additional crystals 
may be obtained. If the solution be concentrated and 
cooled rapidly, with constant stirring, fine individual 
crystals will result. This method is sometimes called 
disturbed crystallization or granulation, because the 
crystals appear in the form of fine granular powder (see 
Granulation, p. 90). If a supersaturated solution is 
allowed to remain at rest, cooling slowly, the result is 
a mass of large crystals more beautiful in appearance 
than the smaller ones, but not always pure, for the 
crystals may have formed upon each other, overlapping 
and often enclosing portions of the mother liquor 
within the spaces. Crystals grow by accretion, so that 
it is possible to build large and perfect crystals by 
selecting small well-defined ones, and placing them in a 
solution which is slightly more than saturated. As the 
solution becomes weaker through crystallization, more 
supersaturated solution is added. Crystals form more 
rapidly upon rough surfaces, and in some cases, where 
crystallization refuses to take place, it may be compelled 
by introducing a few crystals of the substance. Sticks 
or strings are frequently introduced, as in the manu- 
facture of rock candy from syrup, sugar of milk, etc. 

Precipitation. — Crystalline precipitates frequently 
form, as a result of chemical change, but this can scarcely 



INTERSTITIAL WATER 171 

be considered as a method of crystallization. Precipi- 
tation may be induced by changing the solvent proper- 
ties of some liquids by the addition of another liquid. 
For instance, a saturated solution of sulphate of iron is 
precipitated by the addition of alcohol. The sulphate 
of iron is then thrown out of solution as an amorphous 
precipitate, and rapidly changes to the crystalline form. 
In many operations the crystals first obtained are 
impure, and must be repeatedly recrystallized before 
the impurities are removed. 

Water of Crystallization — During crystallization many 
substances unite with water which forms part of the 
crystal. Water so united is known as the water of 
crystallization. Some substances are capable of forming 
only one crystalline compound with water, while others 
form several, as, sodium carbonate forms crystalline 
compounds with 1, 5, 8, and 10 molecules of water. 
The first is now the official salt. Many crystalline 
bodies containing water of crystallization part with it 
on exposure to dry atmosphere. They then lose their 
crystalline form, falling into powder. Such substances 
are termed efflorescent. Substances which slowly absorb 
moisture from the atmosphere are called hydroscopic, 
and those taking up moisture rapidly and becoming 
liquid are deliquescent. 

Interstitial Water. — Interstitial water, or water of 
decrepitation, is water that is mechanically enclosed in 
the interstices of the crystals. When heated, the expan- 
sion of the liquid causes a rupture of the crystals, 
accompanied by minute explosions. The phenomenon 
is termed decrepitation. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

DIALYSIS. 

Dialysis is the term applied to the separation of 
crystallizable substances, or crystalloids, from non-crys- 
tallizable substances or colloids. If a solution of these 
substances be placed in a dialyzer and suspended in 
water, the crystalloid passes through the diaphragm 
into the water, and is called the diffusate. The colloids 
remain upon the surface of the diaphragm, and are called 
the dialysate. The dialyzer used consists of parch- 
ment paper or animal membrane stretched over a short 
cylinder of glass or hard rubber. (Beef or hog bladder 
makes an excellent dialyzer. After thoroughly washing 
the bladder, the liquid may be placed in it and floated 
upon water. Dialysis takes place rapidly at first, and 
gradually decreases as the strength of the diffusate 
increases, until the strengths of the diffusate and dialy- 
sate are equal, when dialysis ceases. Hence it is advis- 
able to change the water frequently. Warm tempera- 
tures are favorable to dialysis.) 

All crystalloids are not crystallizable, but those that 
are not usually unite with other substances to form 
crystallizable compounds. 

Collodion Sacs. — Collodion sacs as prepared by Dr. 
F. G. Novy make excellent dialyzers. Select a glass 
test-tube of the desired size, blow a small hole in the 



COLLODIOX SACS 173 

bottom and then close it by touching the hole with a 
cork dipped in collodion, being careful to prevent any 
of the collodion from entering the tube. Then dip the 
tube in collodion and rotate until evenly coated. After 
removal from the collodion continue rotation until the 
solvent evaporates in order to secure a uniform thickness 
of the membrane. When, after about fifteen minutes, 
the coating has set and is no longer sticky, submerge the 
tube in water. Then, after filling the tube with water, 
blow into it, accompanying the blowing with a gradual 
pressing and twisting of the membrane, commencing at 
the lower end. The water will thus be forced through 
the opening and between the glass and the membrane, 
enabling the latter to be easily removed. 



PART II. 
PRACTICAL PHARMACY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In the arrangement of subjects the writer has been 
influenced by the character of the solvents used in the 
manufacture of galenical preparations, rather than by 
the physical character of the substances employed, 
though the latter has received consideration. 

Elixirs are used as a connecting link between the 
aqueous and alcoholic preparations, and are placed 
between syrups and wine because they contain both 
syrup and alcohol. Glycerin is a triatomic alcohol. 
Hence, the glycerites are placed after those preparations 
containing alcohol. No attempt has been made to 
separate the galenical preparations from the extem- 
poraneous or magistral preparations, as the general 
principles involved in their manufacture are so closely re- 
lated that absolute separation is impracticable. Further- 
more, many of the preparations cannot be classified 
under either of the above heads. Nitrate of mercury 
ointment, glycerite of boroglycerin, and the oleates 
require chemical action, and cannot well be made 
extemporaneously. Neither are they galenical, since 



176 



INTRODUCTION 



galenical preparations are those made from vegetable 
drugs without chemical action. The order of study is 
as follows: 



Waters. 


Resins. 


Solutions. 


Collodions. 


Infusions. 


Glycerites. 


Decoctions. 


Oleates. 


Honeys. 


Liniments. 


Mucilages. 


Ointments. 


Mixtures. 


Cerates. 


Emulsions. 


Plasmas. 


Syrups. 


Pastes. 


Wines. 


Poultices. 


Vinegars. 


Plasters. 


Elixirs. 


Suppositories 


Spirits. 


Powders. 


Tinctures. 


Triturations. 


Fluidextracts. 


Wafers. 


Extracts. 


Pills. 


Oleoresins. 


Tablets. 



Troches. 

General statements applying to a class of preparations 
will be given, followed by such comments upon the 
individual preparation as is necessary to enable the 
student to understand both the manipulation and the 
chemical changes where such occur. These should be 
studied in connection with the Pharmacopoeia and the 
National Formulary. 






CHAPTER XVIII. 

AQLLE. WATERS. 

Official waters are also termed medicated waters. 
All except common and distilled waters are aqueous 
solutions of volatile substances. Those made from 
volatile oils are intended to become saturated solutions, 
and are sometimes called aromatic waters. Volatile 
oils are sparingly soluble in water; hence, various sub- 
stances have been used to aid solution by finely dividing 
the oil, thus increasing the surface exposed to the action 
of the water. In previous editions of the Pharmacopoeia, 
the substances used for this purpose have been mag- 
nesium carbonate, calcium phosphate, and absorbent 
cotton. The eighth pharmacopceial revision directs the 
use of purified talc, but also permits the use of paper 
pulp, direct solution in hot water, or by distillation if 
the product corresponds in all respects with the official 
requirement. The product should be clear, free from 
floating particles, or foreign substances in solution. 
Magnesium carbonate yields a clear and beautiful 
solution, but is slightly soluble in water, making it 
alkaline. It also unites with acids and resins, which are 
present in some oils, thus forming soluble compounds, 
which enter the solution. Calcium phosphate is not a 
good absorbent, and is liable to contain soluble impuri- 
12 



178 AQVM. WATERS 

ties. Commercial white talc should be purified (as 
directed by the Pharmacopoeia), as it contains soluble 
impurities, and extremely fine particles, which pass 
through the filter. These are rejected during purifica- 
tion. The oil should be triturated with the talc and the 
water gradually added during constant trituration, and 
filtered. Return the filtrate to the filter until perfectly 
clear. A few waters, like those made from almond oil, 
creosote, and chloroform, are prepared by direct agita- 
tion with cold water. Camphor water is prepared by 
rubbing the camphor with alcohol before mixing with 
the talc. Many prepare camphor water by keeping a 
stock bottle filled with distilled water, on the surface of 
which an excess of coarsely powdered camphor is con- 
tinually floating. The water soon becomes saturated 
and it is only necessary to filter when wanted. 

Aromatic waters are sometimes made by dropping the 
oil upon shredded filter paper and agitating in a stone 
jug with hot water. Filter the solution when cold. 
Stronger orange-flower water, stronger rose water, and 
hamamelis water are prepared by distillation. In 
Europe all aromatic waters are so made. 

In many cases the product has a more agreeable odor 
than when made from the oil, due to the fact that other 
volatile compounds, as ethers or acids, are frequently 
associated with the oil. In the distillation of the oil they 
are carried over by the steam, but being soluble in water 
remain there and do not separate with the oil. Dis- 
tilled water only should be used in the manufacture of 
official waters. Ordinary water is generally laden with 
impurities from the air and from the soil through which 






PRESERVATION 179 

it passes. Though these impurities may not be injurious 
to health, they are incompatible with many preparations 
dispensed in official waters. The permanent hardness 
of water is due to calcium sulphate, and temporary 
hardness to calcium bicarbonate. The latter, on boiling, 
is decomposed into the less soluble carbonates and car- 
bon dioxide. The carbonate is deposited and the car- 
bon dioxide is driven off. When distilling ordinary 
water, the Pharmacopoeia directs the operator to discard 
the first 10 per cent, of the distillate, as this is liable to be 
contaminated with volatile organic constituents. Only 
the next 80 per cent, of the water is collected, as further 
distillation tends to decompose non-volatile ammonium 
compounds and organic matter. 

Preservation. — Official waters are best preserved in a 
cool, dry place, in sterilized glass containers, so arranged 
that the water may be drawn with a siphon. Also, so 
arranged that the air which enters the container must 
pass through cotton, thus barring the entrance of spores, 
which produce a growth of microorganisms. Water 
so kept has a more agreeable odor than water in air- 
tight containers. Use no preservatives. Alcohol when 
present in small quantities is easily decomposed, and 
aids in decomposition or organic growths. Ammonia 
water, either strong or weak, deteriorates rapidly 
through loss of ammonia gas, hence should be kept in 
a cool place, closely stoppered, and frequently tested. 
Hydrogen dioxide water decomposes easily and should 
be frequently tested by pharmacopceial methods. A 
small quantity of acid added tends to prevent decom- 
position. 



CHAPTEE XIX. 

LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS. 

It has been customary to define the liquores of the 
United States Pharmacopoeia as aqueous solutions of 
non-volatile substances, but this definition no longer 
holds true. There are twenty-five official solutions, and 
in six of them the principal ingredients are either volatile 
at ordinary temperatures, or can be volatilized by 
boiling. The principal solvent is water, but one is 
one-fourth alcohol. Nine solutions are made by dis- 
solving the ingredients directly in the solvent. The 
remaining sixteen solutions involve chemical action. 

Liquor Acidi Arsenosi. — Solution of Arsenous Acid. — 
This contains 1 per cent, of arsenic trioxide, which 
changes to arsenous acid in solution. The hydrochloric 
acid merely acts as a solvent for the trioxide. 

Reaction: 

As 2 3 + 3H 2 = 2H 3 As0 3 . 

Arsenic trioxide. Water. Arsenous acid. 

Liquor Ammonii Acetatis. — Solution of Ammonium 
Acetate, or Spirit of Minder erus. — This should contain 
not less than 7 per cent, of ammonium acetate. Only 
translucent pieces of the carbonate should be used. 
Otherwise it will be deficient in ammonia and the 
product will be excessively acid. The official ammo- 



LIQUOR CALC1S 181 

nium carbonate consists of ammonium bicarbonate 
and carbamate. 

NH 4 HC0 3 .H 4 NH 2 C0 2 . 

Bicarbonate. Carbamate. 

On exposure to air it loses ammonia and the bicar- 
bonate remains. 

Reaction: 
NH 4 HC0 3 NH 4 NH 2 C0 2 + 3HC 2 H,0 2 = 3NH 4 C 2 H 3 2 + 3C0 2 + H 2 0. 

Ammonium carbonate. Acetic acid. Ammonium Carbon Water 

acetate. dioxide. 

This solution should be freshly prepared when 
wanted. 

Liquor Antisepticus. — Antiseptic Solution. — This is 
a hydro-alcoholic solution of boric acid, benzoic acid, 
thymol, and eucalyptol, with the oils of peppermint, 
wintergreen, and thyme. This preparation must not 
be confused with liquor antisepticus alkalinus, alkaline 
antiseptic of the National Formulary. 

Liquor Arseni et Hydrargyri lodidi. — Solution of 
Arsenous and Mercuric Iodide. Donovan's Solution. — 
This contains 1 per cent, each of arsenous iodide and 
mercuric iodide. The arsenous iodide dissolves the 
mercuric iodide, which is either colorless or of a pale 
yellow color. If red from the liberation of iodine, the 
preparation should be discarded. 

Liquor Calcis. — Solution of Calcium Hydroxide, or 
Lime Water. — Lime water is a saturated solution con- 
taining not less than 0.14 per cent, of Ca (OH) 2 . 

Reaction : 

CaO + H 2 = Ca(OH) 2 . 

Calcium oxide. Water. Calcium hydroxide. 



182 LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS 

The water used to slake the lime is rejected, as it may 
contain alkaline carbonates and possibly other soluble 
impurities. Do not filter lime water until wanted for 
use, as it absorbs carbon dioxide, forming the insoluble 
carbonate. If an excess of oxide be present, and it be 
occasionally agitated, the solution remains saturated. 
Since calcium hydroxide is more soluble in cold than in 
hot water, the solution should be discarded if cloudiness 
does not appear upon boiling. 

Liquor Chlori Compositus. — Compound Solution of 
Chlorine, or Chlorine Water. — This water should contain 
about 0.4 per cent, of chlorine, with some oxides of 
chlorine, and some potassium chloride. It results from 
the action of hydrochloric acid upon potassium chlorate. 

Reaction : 
KC10 3 + 6HC1 = 3C1 2 + KC1 + 3H 2 ; also 

Potassium Hydrochloric Chlorine. Potassium Water, 

chlorate. acid. chloride. 

KC10 3 + 2HC1 = CI + C10 2 + KC1 + H 2 0. 

Potassium Hydrochloric Chlorine. Oxide of Potassium Water, 
chlorate. acid. chlorine. chloride. 

Liquor Cresolis Compositus. — Compound Solution of 
Cresol. — This is a 50 per cent, preparation of cresol, 
held in solution by soap formed from the linseed oil and 
potassium hydroxide. The addition of a small quan- 
tity of alcohol before heating aids saponification. 

Liquor Ferri Chloridi. — Solution of Ferric Chloride. — 
This solution should contain not less than 29 per cent, 
of FeCl 3 equal to 10 per cent, of iron. It is prepared 
from iron wire by the action of hydrochloric acid, which 
is added in three separate portions. The acid must be 
of the required strength, as the strength of the finished 






LIQUOR FERRI ET AM MO Nil AC ET AT IS 183 

product depends upon the amount of ferrous chloride 
formed by the first portion of acid added. 

Reaction : 

Fe + 2HC1 = FeCl 2 + H 2 . 

Iron. Hydrochloric acid. Ferrous chloride. Hydrogen. 

The second portion is to form the ferric chloride when 
oxidized by nitric acid. 

Reaction : 



3FeCl 2 + 3HC1 + HN0 3 


= 3FeCl 3 


+ NO + 2H 2 0. 


Ferrous Hydrochloric Nitric 
chloride. acid. acid. 


Ferric 
chloride. 


Nitric Water, 
oxide. 



The last portion of nitric acid must be cautiously 
added, as it is extremely difficult to remove an excess 
without considerable loss of ferric chloride and the 
formation of a large amount of oxychloride. A small 
amount would be redissolved by the third portion of 
hydrochloric acid which is added for that purpose. 

Reaction : 

FeOCl + 2HC1 = FeCl 3 + H 2 0. 

Ferric Hydrochloric Ferric chloride. Water. 

oxychloride. acid. 

The formula for ferric oxychloride is only approxi- 
mate, as the proportion of oxygen to chlorine may vary. 

Liquor Ferri et Ammonii Acetatis. — Solution of Iron 
and Ammonium Acetate. Basham's Mixture. — This is 
prepared from tincture of ferric chloride, acetic acid, and 
solution of ammonium acetate. The latter must not be 
alkaline, as a basic salt will be formed. This prepara- 
tion must be freshly prepared when desired for use. 

Reaction : 



FeCl 3 + 3NH 3 HC 2 H 3 2 = 


= Fe(C 2 H 3 2 ) 3 + 3NH 4 C1. 


Ferric chloride. Ammonium 


Ferric acetate. Ammonium 


acetate. 


chloride. 






184 LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS 

Liquor Ferri Subsulphatis. — Solution of Ferric Sub- 
sulphate. MonseVs Solution. — This contains basic 
ferric sulphate equal to not less than 13.57 per cent, of 
metallic iron. Its chemical composition is variable, but 
the manipulations and reactions are similar to those 
given for ferric tersulphate, the principal difference 
being that it contains less sulphuric acid. 

Liquor Ferri Tersulphatis. — Solution of Ferric Sul- 
phate. — This preparation should contain 36 per cent, of 
Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , equal to 10 per cent, of iron. This solution 
and the preceding are prepared by oxidizing ferrous 
sulphate to ferric sulphate by the aid of nitric acid, in 
the presence of sulphuric acid. 

Reaction : 

6FeS0 4 + 3H 2 S0 4 + 2HN0 3 = 3Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 + 4H 2 + 2NO. 

Ferrous Sulphuric Nitric Ferric Water. Nitric 

sulphate. acid. acid. sulphate. oxide. 

The black compound formed in the solution during 
oxidation is (FeS0 4 ) 2 NO. It is decomposed by the 
addition of sufficient nitric acid to oxidize all the ferrous 
sulphate to ferric sulphate, with the liberation of the 
nitric oxide. An excess of nitric acid must be avoided, 
as it is not easily removed by boiling. 

Liquor Formaldehydi. — Solution of Formaldehyde. — 
This solution should contain at least 37 per cent, of 
absolute formaldehyde, HCOH. It is obtained by the 
oxidation of methyl alcohol. 

Reaction : 

CH.OH + O = HCOH + H 2 0. 

Methyl alcohol. Oxygen. Formaldehyde. Water. 

Liquor Hydrargyri Nitratis. — Solution of Nitrate of 
Mercury. — It should contain about 60 per cent, of mer- 



LIQUOR PLUMBI SUBACETATIS 185 

curie nitrate, Hg(NO s ) 2 , and is prepared by dissolving 
red mercuric oxide in nitric acid. 

Reaction : 

HgO + 2HN0 3 = Hg(N0 3 ) 2 + H 2 0. 

Mercuric oxide. Nitric acid. Mercuric nitrate. Water. 

Liquor Iodi Compositus. — Compound Solution of 
Iodine. LugoVs Solution. — It contains not less than 5 
per cent, of iodine and 10 per cent, of potassium iodide. 
It is made by direct solution of the ingredients. The 
potassium iodide is used to aid in dissolving the iodine. 

Liquor Magnesii Citratis. — Solution of Magnesium 
Citrate. — The solution is formed by dissolving mag- 
nesium carbonate in citric acid, thus producing an acid 
citrate. 

Reaction : 
(MgC0 3 ) 4 Mg(OH) 2 + 5H,C 6 H 5 7 = 5MgHC 6 H 5 7 + 4C0 2 + 6H,0. 

Magnesium carbonate. Citric acid. Magnesium Carbon Water. 

citrate. dioxide. 

The normal citrate has little cathartic action and 
is sparingly soluble, which accounts for the deposit 
frequently found in commercial solutions. The bottles 
should always lie on their sides to keep the stoppers wet 
and prevent loss of carbon dioxide. 

Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis. — Solution of Lead Sub- 
acetate. Goulard's Solution. — It contains at least 25 per 
cent, of lead subacetate [approximately Pb 2 0(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 ], 
formed by boiling a solution of lead acetate with lead 
oxide. 

Reaction : 

PbO + Pb(G,H 3 2 ) 2 = Pb 2 0(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 . 

Lead oxide. Lead acetate. Lead subacetate. 



186 LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS 

Keep the solution well stoppered, as it rapidly absorbs 
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming insoluble 
lead carbonate. 

Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus. — Dilute Solution 
of Lead Subacetate. Lead Water. — Lead water, properly 
made, contains about 1 per cent, of lead subacetate, 
formed by mixing a solution of lead subacetate with 
freshly boiled distilled water. The object of the boiling 
is to remove any carbon dioxide that may have been 
absorbed from the atmosphere, otherwise lead carbonate 
will be formed. 

Liquor Potassii Arsenitis. — Solution of Potassium 
Arsenite. Fowler's Solution. — This solution contains 
potassium arsenite corresponding to 1 per cent, of 
arsenic trioxide. It is prepared by boiling the arsenic 
trioxide and potassium bicarbonate with water, and 
coloring with compound tincture of lavender. 

Reaction: 



As 2 3 + KHC0 3 = 


2K 2 HAs0 3 + H 2 + 4C0 2 . 


Arsenic Potassium 


Potassium Water. Carbon 


trioxide. bicarbonate. 


arsenite. trioxode. 



KH 2 As0 3 may also be formed. 

There is an excess of potassium bicarbonate, which is 
converted into carbonate by boiling, and makes the 
solution slightly alkaline. 

Reaction : 



2KHC03 


+ boiling 


= K 2 C0 3 + 


H 2 + C0 2 . 


Potassium 




Potassium 


Water. Carbon 


bicarbonate. 




carbonate. 


dioxide. 



Liquor Potassii Citratis. — Solution of Potassium 
Citrate. Neutral Mixture. — This contains not less than 
8 per cent, of potassium citrate (K 3 C 6 H 5 7 ), and, when 



LIQUOR SODM CHLORINATE 187 

needed, should be freshly prepared by mixing solutions 
of citric acid and potassium bicarbonate. 
Reaction : 

H,C 6 H i 7 + 3KHC0 3 = K 3 C 6 H 5 7 + 3H 2 + C0 2 . 

Citric acid. Potassium Potassium Water. Carbon 

bicarbonate. citrate. dioxide. 

Liquor Potassii Hydroxidi. — Solution of Potassium 
Hydroxide. — This solution contains about 5 per cent, 
of potassium hydroxide (KOH), and is made by dis- 
solving the hydroxide in water. 

Liquor Sodii Hydroxidi. — Solution of Sodium Hydrox- 
ide. — This solution contains 5 per cent, of sodium 
hydroxide (NaOH), made by dissolving the hydroxide 
in water. The Pharmacopoeia directs that solutions 
of both potassium and sodium hydroxide shall be kept 
in green glass bottles, because they are less soluble in 
strong alkalies than are the clear glass ones. 

Liquor Sodse Chlorinatae. — Solution of Chlorinated 
Soda. Labarraque's Solution. — This should contain 
2.4 per cent, of available chlorine, and is made by 
triturating chlorinated lime with water, filtering, and 
mixing with a hot solution of monohydrated sodium 
carbonate. Calcium carbonate is precipitated, and 
removed by filtration. The sodium carbonate solutions 
should be hot when added, otherwise the precipitate is 
apt to be gelatinous and refuse to separate unless the 
solution is heated, which would cause a loss of chlorine. 
According to Odling, chlorinated lime, 2CaC10Cl, 
decomposes in water to Ca(C10) 2 + CaCl 2 . The 
reaction with sodium carbonate would then be: 

Reaction : 
Ca(OCl) 2 + CaCl 2 + 2Na 2 C0 3 = 2NaOCl + 2NaCl + 2CaC0 3 . 

Calcium Calcium Sodium Sodium Sodium Calcium 

hypochlorite, chloride, carbonate, hypochlorite, chloride, carbonate. 



188 LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS 

Liquor Sodii Arsenitis. — Solution of Sodium Arsenate. 
— This solution contains 1 per cent, of exsiccated sodium 
arsenate and is prepared by direct solution. 

Liquor Sodii Phosphatis Compositus. — Compound Solu- 
tion of Sodium Phosphate. — Each cubic centimeter of 
the solution contains 1 Gm. of sodium phosphate held 
in solution by sodium nitrate and citric acid. This is 
sometimes prescribed as liquid sodium phosphate 
(one dram in one fluidram). 

Liquor Zinci Chloridi. — Solution of Zinc Chloride. — 
This solution contains about 50 per cent, of zinc chloride, 
prepared by dissolving zinc in hydrochloric acid. 

Reaction : 

Zn + 2HC1 = ZnCl 2 + H 2 . 

Zinc. Hydrochloric acid. Zinc chloride. Hydrogen. 

The clear solution is decanted and nitric acid added. 
It is then evaporated at a temperature not exceeding 
115° C, until a portion solidifies on cooling. The nitric 
acid is added to oxidize to the ferric condition any iron 
that may be present. 

Reaction : 

3FeCl 2 + 3HC1 + HN0 3 = 3FeCl 3 + 2H 2 + NO. 

Ferrous Hydrochloric Nitric Ferric Water. Nitric 

chloride. acid. acid. chloride. oxide. 

Any excess of nitric or hydrochloric acid is removed 
by the evaporation. The residue is dissolved in water 
and zinc carbonate added, which precipitates the iron 
as ferric hydroxide. 

Reaction : 

2FeCl 3 + 3ZnCO s + 3H 2 = 2Fe(OH) 3 + 3ZnCl 2 + 3C0 2 . 

Ferric Zinc Water. Ferric Zinc Carbon 

chloride, carbonate. hydroxide. chloride, dioxide. 

After the precipitate and the excess of zinc carbonate 
have been allowed to settle, the clear solution is 



LIQUOR ALUMINI ACETOTARTRATIS 189 

decanted. Filtration cannot be used, as a strong solu- 
tion of zinc chloride acts on filter paper. If the solution 
be evaporated at a temperature higher than 115°, a 
portion of the zinc chloride will be volatilized. 

The National Formulary contains formulas for 
forty-eight liquores. Many of them are very simple, 
while others are quite complex, involving chemical 
changes. 

Liquor Alumini Acetatis. — Solution of Aluminum 
Acetate. — It is prepared by the action of acetic acid on 
calcium carbonate, forming calcium acetate. 

Reaction : 

CaC0 3 + 2HC 2 H 3 2 = Ca(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 + C0 2 + H 2 0. 

Calcium Acetic acid. Calcium acetate. Carbon Water, 

carbonate. dioxide. 

The solution of calcium acetate is then mixed with a 

solution of aluminum sulphate. The calcium sulphate is 

precipitated, leaving the aluminum acetate in solution. 

Reaction : 
Ca(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 + A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 = CaS0 4 + 2A1(C 2 H S 2 ) 3 . 

Calcium acetate. Aluminum Calcium Aluminum 

sulphate. sulphate. acetate. 

Liquor Alumini Acetotartratis. — Solution of Alumi- 
num Acetotartrate. — This is formed by the action of a 
mixture of acetic and tartaric acids on aluminum 
hydroxide. Aluminum hydroxide is formed by pre- 
cipitating aluminum sulphate with sodium carbonate. 

Reaction : 
A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 + 3Na 2 C0 3 . 10H 2 = 2A1(0H) 3 + C0 2 + 3Na 2 S0 2 + 7H 2 0. 

Aluminum Sodium Water. Aluminum Carbon Sodium Water, 
sulphate. carbonate. hydroxide, dioxide, sulphate. 

Al(OH) 3 + 3HC 2 H 3 2 = A1(C 2 H 3 2 ) 3 + 3H 2 0. 

Aluminum hydroxide. Acetic acid. Aluminum acetate. Water. 

or 

2A1(0H) 3 + 3H 2 C 4 H 4 6 = A1 2 (0 4 H 4 6 ) 3 + 6H 2 0. 

Aluminum hydroxide. Tartaric acid. Aluminum tartrate. Water. 



190 LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS 

Liquor Ammonii Acetatis Concentratus. — Concentrated 
Solution of Ammonium Acetate. — This is prepared by 
neutralizing acetic acid with ammonium acetate. (See 
Pharmacopceial Solution of Ammonium Acetate.) 

Liquor Ammonii Citratis. — Solution of Ammonium 
Citrate. — It is prepared by neutralizing citric acid with 
stronger ammonia water. 

Reaction : 

H 3 C 6 H 5 7 + 3NH.OH = (NH 4 ) 3 C 6 H 5 7 + 3H 2 0. 

Citric acid. Ammonium Ammonium citrate. Water, 

hydroxide. 

Liquor Antisepticus Alkalinus. — Alkaline Antiseptic 
Solution. — The effervescence which occurs when alka- 
line antiseptic solution is prepared is due to the reaction 
between glycerin and borax forming glyceryl borate and 
sodium metaborate. 

Reaction: 

C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 + Na 2 B 4 7 = C 3 H 5 B0 3 + 2NaB0 2 + 3H 2 0. 
Glycerin. Sodium Glyceryl Sodium Water, 

borate. borate. metaborate. 

The glyceryl borate is decomposed by water forming 
glycerin and boric acid. 



Reaction: 








C 3 H s B0 3 + 


3H 2 = 


= C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 


+ H 3 B0 3 . 


Glyceryl borate. 


Water. 


Glycerin. 


Boric acid. 



The boric acid then unites with the potassium bicar- 
bonate to form potassium borate, and carbon dioxide 
is liberated. 

Reaction: 

H 3 B0 3 + KHCO3 = KBO a + CO, + 2H 2 0. 

Boric acid. Potassium Potassium Carbon Water, 

bicarbonate. metaborate. dioxide. 



LIQUOR FERRI OXYCHLORIDI 191 

Liquor Calcis Sulphuratse. — Solution of Sulphurated 
Lime. Vleminckx's Solution. — The reactions and 
manipulation in the manufacture of this solution are 
practically identical with the first step in the manu- 
facture of precipitated sulphur. The lime and sulphur 
unite to form calcium disulphide and thiosulphate. 

Reaction: 



3CaO + 6S + 


boiling 


= 2CaS 2 + CaS 2 3 . 


Calcium Sulphur. 




Calcium Calcium 


oxide. 




sulphide. thiosulphate. 



Liquor Ferri Albuminati. — Solution of Albuminate of 
Iron. Liquor Ferri Peptonati. — Solution of Peptonate 
of Iron. — They are complex organic compounds of iron 
of indefinite composition, the solution of ferric oxy- 
chloride being used in both preparations. 

Liquor Ferri Oxychloridi. — Solution of Ferric Oxy- 
chloride. — The manufacture of this preparation depends 
upon the fact that the ferric chloride is capable of dis- 
solving a large amount of freshly precipitated ferric 
hydroxide. The ferric hydroxide is best formed by 
precipitating a solution of ferric tersulphate with 
ammonia water. 

Reaction: 

Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 + 6NH 4 HO = 2Fe(OH) 3 + 3(NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 . 

Ferric Ammonium Ferric Ammonium 

sulphate. hydroxide. hydroxide. sulphate. 

It is important that the solutions be cold, otherwise 
less soluble basic compounds are apt to be formed. E. 
H. Squibb recommends precipitation with a very dilute 
solution of sodium hydroxide containing a little sugar, 
which tends to prevent basic compounds. If much 
sugar be used it will prevent precipitation. After wash- 



192 LIQUORES. SOLUTIONS 

ing, the precipitate is dissolved by the addition of a little 
hydrochloric acid, forming ferric chloride, which acts 
as a solvent for the remainder of the hydroxide, oxyhy- 
drochloride of indefinite composition being formed. 

Reaction: 

Fe 2 (HO) 3 + 6HC1 = 2FeCl 3 + 3H 2 0. 

Ferric hydroxide. Hydrochloric acid. Ferric chloride. Water. 

Liquor Ferri Iodidi. — Solution of Ferrous Iodide. — 

This solution is prepared by the action of iodide on iron 

wire, and is preserved by the hypophosphorous acid, 

which prevents oxidation. 

Reaction: 

Fe + I 2 = Fel 2 . 

Iron. Iodide. Ferrous iodide. 

Liquor Ferri Oxysulphatis. — Solution of Oxysulphate 
of Iron. — The solution is prepared by oxidizing ferrous 
sulphate with nitric acid. The product doubtless con- 
sists of ferric sulphate and nitrate, according to the 
following reaction: 

Reaction: 
3FeS0 4 + 4HN0 3 = Fe,(S0 4 ) 3 + Fe(N0 3 ) 3 + 2H 2 + NO. 

Ferric Nitric Ferric Ferric Water. Nitric 

sulphate. acid. sulphate. nitrate. oxide. 

Liquor Ferri Protochloridi. — Solution of Ferrous 
Chloride. — It is prepared by the action of hydrochloric 
acid on iron wire and preserved by hypophosphorous 
acid. 

Reaction: 

Fe + 2HC1 = FeCl 2 + H 2 . 

Iron. Hydrochloric Ferrous Hydrogen, 
acid. chloride. 

Liquor Magnesii Sulphatis Effervescens. — Effervescent 
Solution of Magnesium Sulphate. — This is put up in the 






LIQUOR SOD 1 1 BORATIS COMPO SITUS 193 



same manner as the United States Pharmacopoeia effer- 
vescent solution of magnesium citrate. The efferves- 
cence is due to the action of citric acid upon the 
potassium bicarbonate. 

Reaction: 



H 3 C 6 H 5 7 


+ 3KHC0 3 


= K 3 C 6 H 5 7 + 3H 2 + 3C0 2 . 


Citric acid. 


Potassium 


Solution mag- Water. Carbon 




bicarbonate. 


nesium citrate. dioxide. 



Liquor Phosphatum Acidus. — Solution of Acid Phos- 
phates. — This solution is prepared from bone ash and 
sulphuric acid. Bone ash consists principally of tricalcic 
phosphate. A portion of the calcium is removed by the 
sulphuric acid as insoluble calcium sulphate and the 
calcium acid phosphates pass into solution. 

Reaction: 

H 2 S0 4 = CaS0 4 



Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 

Tribasic calcium 
phosphate. 



Sulphuric 
acid. 



or 



Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 2H 2 S0 4 



Calcium 
sulphate. 



2CaS0 4 



+ 2CaHP0 4 . 

Dibasic calcium 
phosphate. 



■ CaH 4 (P0 4 ) 2 . 

Monobasic calcium 
phosphate. 



Liquor Potass se Chlorinatse. — Solution of Chlorinated 
Potassa. Javelle Water. — The potassium carbonate 
precipitates the calcium as a carbonate, leaving the 
chlorinated potassa in the solution. For reaction, see 
Solution of Chlorinated Soda, p. 187. 

Liquor Sodii Boratis Compositus. — Compound Solution 
of Sodium Borate. D obeli's Solution. — For the reaction 
between the glycerin, borax, and bicarbonate, 
Alkaline Antiseptic Solution, p. 190. 



see 



13 



CHAPTER XX. 

INFUSIONS AND DECOCTIONS. 
INFUSA. INFUSIONS. 

Infusions are solutions of the active constituents of 
drugs in either hot or cold water. When cold water is 
used they are made by maceration and percolation. 
When hot water is employed, the drug is placed in a 

Fig. Ill 




Squire's infusion pot. 

suitable vessel, boiling water is poured over it, then 
tightly covered and allowed to macerate from one-half 
to one hour. Express, strain, and wash the dregs with 
sufficient water to make the required volume. Fig. Ill 
illustrates an infusion pot, which acts on the principle 



1NFUSA. INFUSIONS 195 

of circulatory displacement, but has no advantage over 
the method of placing the drug loosely in a piece of 
muslin, pouring hot water over it, and suspending in the 
top of the liquid. This principle has also been applied 
in the manufacture of aluminum coffee pots. The drug 
should be bruised or reduced to a moderately coarse 
powder. In the manufacture of infusions or decoctions, 
eliminate the inert material as far as possible, as its 
presence aids decomposition. Gum and sugar are 
soluble in both hot and cold water, starch only in hot 
water, and albumin in cold water alone. When the 
strength of unofficial infusions is not specified by the 
physician, they should be made in the proportion of 
5 Gm. of the drug to 100 Cc. of finished infusion. The 
strength of infusions of powerful or energetic drugs 
should be specified by the physician. Infusions and 
decoctions ought not to be made from fluid extracts 
or tinctures, as the different menstrua employed in 
their manufacture may extract different constituents. 
Besides, they are frequently prescribed when the 
alcohol in the fluidextract or tincture would be objec- 
tionable. If a physician desires a fluidextract or tincture, 
let him prescribe it. 

Pharmacopceial Infusions. 

Infusum Digitalis. — Infusion of Digitalis. — This con- 
tains 1.5 Gm. in 100 Cc, with alcohol and cinnamon 
water as preservatives. 

Infusum Pruni Virginian ae. — Infusion of Wild Cherry. 
— It contains 4 Gm. in 100 Cc, and is made by macera- 
tion and percolation. Wild cherry bark contains a 



196 INFUSIONS AND DECOCTIONS 

glucoside similar, if not identical, with amygdalin, and 
also an enzyme. Upon moistening with cold water the 
enzyme splits the glucoside into benzaldehyde, hydro- 
cyanic acid, and glucose. 

Reaction: 

C :o H 27 NO n +2H 2 + enzyme = C t ,H 5 COH + HCN + 2C 6 H ]2 2 . 

Amygdalin. Water. Benzaldehyde. Hydrocyanic Glucose. 

acid. 

Heat destroys the enzyme, hence prevents fermenta- 
tion and the formation of hydrocyanic acid; or if fer- 
mentation be allowed to take place first, the heat would 
drive off the hydrocyanic acid. 

Infusum Sennae Compositum. — Compound Infusion of 
Senna. Black Draught. — This contains senna, 6 Gm.; 
manna and magnesium sulphate, each, 12 Gm.; and 
fennel, 2 Gm., in 100 Cc. 

National Formulary Infusions. 

Infusum Gentianse Compositum Fortius. — Stronger 
Compound Infusion of Gentian. — This preparation is 
made so that one volume can be mixed with three 
volumes of water to make the compound infusion of 
gentian. It is made with dilute alcohol, hence it is not 
properly an infusion, but a tincture. 

Infusum Rosae Compositum. — Compound Infusion of 
Rose. — This infusion is made with heat, and contains 
a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid to improve the 
color. 

Infusions of brayera and cinchona were formerly 
placed in the Pharmacopoeia, but are now considered 
in the National Formulary. 



DECOCTA. DECOCTIONS 197 



DECOCTA. DECOCTIONS. 

Decoctions are solutions of the active constituents of 
vegetable drugs. They are made by placing the drug 
in a suitable vessel, pouring cold water over it, covering 
and afterward boiling for fifteen minutes. Cool to 40° C. 
Express, strain, and wash with water sufficient to make 
the required volume. Most vegetable drugs contain 
albumin, which is coagulated when the drug is placed 
in water already boiling. This tends to retard the 
solution of the active constituents. Hence, the drug 
should be placed in cold water and gradually raised to 
the boiling point. Do not make decoctions from drugs 
containing a large amount of starch, as the starch is 
soluble in boiling water and forms a thick mucilaginous 
mass. 

Glass, earthen, or porcelain vessels are preferred in 
the manufacture of decoctions, though tinned copper 
may be used. Do not use iron vessels, as many drugs 
contain tannin. Crush the drug or reduce to coarse 
powder. Decoctions are not elegant preparations, and 
frequently deposit on cooling. The deposit generally 
consists of inert matter, which could be removed by 
straining. In some cases it may be active, hence it is 
better to dispense with a "shake" label. There are no 
pharmacopceial decoctions, but a general formula is 
given directing to make their strength 5 Gm. to 100 Cc. 
In the case of powerful or energetic drugs the strength 
should be prescribed by the physician. 



108 INFUSIONS AND DECOCTIONS 

National Formulary Decoctions. 

Decoctum Aloes Compositum. — Compound Decoction 
of Aloes. — This contains aloes, myrrh, saffron, licorice, 
potassium bicarbonate, and tincture of cudbear. 

Decoctum Cetrarise. — Decoction of Irish Moss. — The 
cetraria is first macerated in cold water, and later 
expressed to remove the bitter principle. This is 
rejected. 

Decoctum Sarsaparillae Compositum. — Compound 
Decoction of Sarsaparilla. — This contains sarsaparilla, 
sassafras, guaiacum wood, licorice, and mezereum. 



SPECIES. 

This is the term frequently applied to very coarse 
powders or bruised drugs to be used for the manufacture 
of infusions or decoctions. They are sometimes called 
teas. Three such preparations may be found in the 
National Formulary. They are Species Emollientes, 
Emollient Species; Species Laxantes, St. Germain Tea; 
Species Pectorales, Breast Tea. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

HONEYS, MUCILAGES, AND MIXTURES. 
MELLITA. HONEYS. 

Medicinal honeys are made by mixing the medicinal 
substance with clarified honey. 

Mel Depuratum. — Clarified Honey {Mel Despumaium, 
U. S. P., 1890). — It contains 5 per cent, glycerin, which 
is added to prevent crystallization. 

MUCILAGINES. MUCILAGES. 

The term mucilage is applied to viscid adhesive 
liquids or to a plastic mass formed by the action of water 
on mucilaginous substances. They should be freshly 
prepared when desired for use, as none are stable. 

Mucilago Acacise. — Mucilage of Acacia. — It contains 
34 per cent, of acacia, and is made by washing the 
acacia to remove foreign matter and afterward dissolv- 
ing in distilled water and lime water. The latter is 
added to neutralize the acid and prevent decomposition. 
As the solution becomes sticky it is difficult to agitate, 
and many prefer to manufacture it by circulatory dis- 
placement. Others prepare the mucilage when wanted, 
using granulated acacia and triturating in a mortar. 
This process requires only a few minutes, and insures 
a fresh preparation. 



200 HONEYS, MUCILAGES, AND MIXTURES 

Mucilago Tragacanthae. — Mucilage of Tragacanth. — 
This mucilage contains 6 per cent, of tragacanth and 18 
per cent, of glycerin. It forms a plastic mass. The 
glycerin is intended as a preservative, but the prepara- 
tion keeps but a short time only. 



MISTUR-ffi. MIXTURES. 

The term mixture is indiscriminately used. It is 
frequently applied to a compound of two or more sub- 
stances, regardless of the physical character of the 
substances employed or the product formed. Prepa- 
rations of this class will be considered under the subject 
of dispensing. The term mixtures, in its more restric- 
tive meaning, is applied to a class of preparations similar 
to those of that name in the Pharmacopoeia. These 
preparations contain some insoluble substance, usually 
held in suspension by some substance of a viscid char- 
acter. The insoluble substance should be powdered, 
and then, with few exceptions, rubbed with a small 
quantity of the liquid until a smooth, creamy paste is 
produced, when the remaining liquid may be added. 
Oxides which take up water of hydration, like mag- 
nesia, when treated as above, generally form a granular 
or gelatinous mass. In this case, sift the fine powder into 
the liquid while stirring. Mixtures are not intended to 
be stable preparations, and should always be dispensed 
with a "shake" label. 

Mistura Ferri Composita. — Compound Iron Mixture. 
— This mixture contains ferrous carbonate formed by 



MISTUR&. MIXTURES 201 

the action of the potassium carbonate on ferrous sul- 
phate. 

Reaction: 

FeS0 4 + K 2 C0 3 = FeC0 3 + K 2 SO<. 

Ferrous Potassium Ferrous Potassium 

sulphate. carbonate. carbonate. sulphate. 

There is a large excess of potassium carbonate, which 
unites with the myrrh and forms a resin soap. This 
mixture should be freshly prepared, as the ferrous car- 
bonate quickly oxidizes. 

Mistura Glycyrrhizae Compositae. — Compound Mixture 
of Licorice. Brown Mixture. — If pure extract of licorice 
be used as directed, the product will be a clear brown 
solution. The ordinary extract is only partially soluble, 
thus producing a brown mixture. 

Mistura Rhei et Sod 33. — Mixture of Rhubarb and 
Soda. — In this mixture, the sodium bicarbonate unites 
with the resinous constituents of the rhubarb, rendering 
them more soluble in the aqueous liquid. 

The National Formulary contains a number of 
formulas for mixtures, most of which may be prepared 
extemporaneously when wanted, and do not require 
special comment. 

Mistura Adstringens et Escharoticse. — Vitiate' s Solu- 
tion. — This is a mixture of solution of lead subacetate, 
copper sulphate, and zinc sulphate in acetic acid. The 
lead is precipitated as a sulphate, which is separated by 
decantation, using only the clear liquid. The probable 
reaction would be : 

Pb,0(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 + 2HC 2 H 3 2 = 2Pb(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 + H 2 0. 

Lead subacetate. Acetic acid. Lead acetate. Water. 

Pb(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 + CuS0 4 = PbS0 4 + Cu(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 . 

Lead acetate. Copper Lead Copper acetate, 

sulphate. sulphate. 



202 HONEYS, MUCILAGES, AND MIXTURES 

Misturse Copaibae. — Copaiba Mixtures. — The first of 
these is Lafayette's Mixture, which contains copaiba, 
spirits of nitrous ether, tincture of lavender compound, 
and solution of potassium hydroxide. The potassium 
hydroxide is used to partially saponify the copaiba, 
which aids in its emulsification. 

The second, Chapman's Mixture, differs from Lafay- 
ette's, as it contains tincture of opium but no potassium 
hydroxide. No directions are given for its manufacture. 
The copaiba should be emulsified with the mucilage of 
acacia, before adding the other constituents. 

Mistura Rhei Composita. — Squibb's Rhubarb Mixture. 
— This is nearly identical with the pharmacopceial 
mixture of rhubarb and soda, as it contains the same 
ingredients, but it is only about four-fifths as strong. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

EMULSA. EMULSIONS. 

Emulsions are opaque, milky mixtures which con- 
tain oils, fats, resinous, or other immiscible substances, 
held in suspension in water by mucilaginous or albu- 
minous bodies. The emulsified substance should be in 
a finely divided condition, each particle surrounded by 
a mucilaginous coating which prevents the globules 
from coalescing. Milk is the best type of an emulsion. 
The butter fat exists in minute globules, surrounded by 
a film of casein, which prevents the particles of fat from 
uniting. The quality of the emulsifier is judged by the 
fineness of the globules produced, rather than by the 
quantity of oil emulsified. The finer the oil globules 
the more easily the emulsion is assimilated. 

Emulsifying Agents. — Acacia is the most satisfactory 
emulsifier for general use, as it yields a permanent 
white emulsion with finely divided oil globules. Casein 
has been strongly recommended. Though it decom- 
poses easily, it produces a fine palatable emulsion when 
used in a fresh condition. Otherwise, it has no advan- 
tage over acacia. Condensed milk is a good emulsifier, 
but, like casein, should only be employed in emulsions 
to be used within a few days. Yolk of eggs is an excel- 
lent aid to emulsification, but as it decomposes easily it 
is best used in the form of the glycerite of the National 
Formulary. It is advantageously employed in emulsions 



204 EMULSA. EMULSIONS 

containing acid, acid salts, or other substance that 
precipitates acacia. 

Tragacanth ranks next to acacia as a general emulsi- 
fier. It is capable of emulsifying a much larger quantity 
of oil, but the globules are not so fine nor the emulsion 
so white. However, it is less apt to separate into two 
layers. Doubtless the best results are obtained by 
using a combination in the proportion of one part 
tragacanth to ten parts of acacia. Irish Moss behaves 
similarly to tragacanth, and is sometimes used with 
acacia, especially when manufacturing emulsions by 
machinery and upon a large scale. It is generally used 
in the form of mucilage (National Formulary). It has 
no advantage over tragacanth, with the positive disad- 
vantage of decomposing more easily. 

Extract of malt is sometimes prescribed with oil. If 
acid, it should be neutralized with sodium bicarbonate 
and placed in a warm mortar. Add the oil gradually, 
stirring rapidly. The oil does not readily separate, but 
it is not in a state of fine division. Extract of licorice is 
not a good emulsifier. It can be used with other emul- 
sifiers to disguise the taste of cod-liver oil. Dextrin has 
been recommended as an emulsifier, but it is unsatis- 
factory. Its chief recommendation is its cheapness. 
Pancreatin is sometimes prescribed with oil, when it 
may be used as an emulsifier. It should be used in 
alkaline solution and the oil warmed to 50° C, when the 
ferment digests a portion of the oil, and the product aids 
in emulsification. 

Tincture of quillaia and other substances containing 
saponin are good emulsifiers. They have been recom- 



NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL EMULSIONS 205 

mended for emulsions containing free acid, or other 
constituents that precipitate gums. It possesses no 
special advantage over yolk of egg, and its acrid taste is 
a decided objection. 



NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL EMULSIONS. 

Emulsions are divisible into two classes, natural and 
artificial. 

Natural Emulsions. — Natural emulsions are those 
formed in nature, as milk, the juices of many plants, 
yolks of eggs. Upon microscopic examination they are 
seen to consist of minute globules of oil, separated by a 
viscid fluid. 

Artificial Emulsions. — To this class belong emulsions 
made from seeds, gum resin, fats, fixed and volatile 
oils, etc. A perfect emulsion may separate into two 
layers, as cream from milk, but there should never be a 
separation of the unemulsified substance. 

Seed emulsions may be made from all seeds con- 
taining oils and albuminous substances, by triturating 
with water. Most seeds contain these necessary con- 
stituents. In the manufacture of seed emulsions it is 
important that a small quantity of water be present when 
crushing the seeds, otherwise the oil will be expressed 
and not be so easily emulsified. When the seeds are 
finely divided, more water may be added and trituration 
continued until a homogeneous creamy mixture results. 
Then strain, and wash the strainer and contents with 
sufficient water to make the required amount. The 



206 EMULSA. EMULSIONS 

almond emulsion of the Pharmacopoeia is a type of this 
class. It contains sugar and acacia, but these are un- 
necessary for emulsification, though they add to the 
permanency of the emulsion. The seeds should be first 
blanched by soaking in hot water until the testa or seed 
coat softens, when it may be removed by pressing 
between the fingers. 

Gum-resin emulsions are prepared by coarsely 
powdering the gum resin, and triturating with a small 
quantity of water until it becomes a smooth paste. The 
remainder of the water may be slowly added and the 
emulsion strained to remove foreign particles. Only 
selected tears should be used, as in time the fine powder, 
by dehydration, becomes so changed that emulsification 
is impossible. 

Fixed oil emulsions are usually prepared in a mor- 
tar, which should be flat-bottomed, and with a pestle of 
such shape that the greatest possible surface is in con- 
tact with the mortar. The pestle should be held loosely 
between the thumb and fingers, combining the wrist and 
finger movement in such a manner that the pestle will 
always be at right angles to the surface with which it is 
in contact, at the same time maintaining a light but 
rapid motion in one direction until completed. 

Acacia is more frequently used in dispensing than is 
any other emulsifier. Two methods of using acacia are 
generally employed, viz., the English and the Con- 
tinental methods. 

English Method. — In this method a thick mucilage 
of acacia is placed in a mortar and the oil is added in 
small quantities. Each portion of oil is thoroughly 



NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL EMULSIONS 207 

emulsified before another portion is added. Perfect 
emulsification may be recognized by the smooth, cream- 
like appearance. Should the emulsion become too 
thick, caused by the too rapid addition of the oil or the 
use of too thin mucilage, a few drops of water should be 
added. Otherwise the emulsion may become cracked, 
which may be recognized by the accompanying cracking 
noise, the pearly appearance of the mixture, and the 
separation of the oil from the mucilage. In this case the 
only remedy is to make a fresh portion of mucilage, to 
which add the cracked emulsion, as though it were an oil. 
Continental Method. — There are three different 
ways of applying the Continental method, but it is 
necessary to consider only that one which yields the best 
results. If the directions be carefully followed, success 
is sure to come. It is immaterial how much water or 
syrup is prescribed, but the initial quantity directed for 
the emulsification of the oil must be strictly used. When 
the emulsion is formed the remainder of the water and 
other ingredients may be added. The initial quantities 
are: Oil, four parts; water, two parts; powdered acacia, 
one part; or, half as much water as oil, and half as much 
acacia as water. Place the powdered acacia in a dry 
mortar, add the oil all at once, and employ barely suffi- 
cient trituration to moisten the acacia. Immediately 
add the water and triturate until the emulsion is formed. 
The water will gradually dissolve the acacia and form 
a mucilage which envelops the oil, forming a uniform 
creamy mixture. Other ingredients may now be added. 
If the acacia be left too long in contact with the oil, it 
becomes insoluble in the water. In hot weather it is 



208 EMULSA. EMULSIONS 

better to cool both the oil and the water, as heat inter- 
feres with the emulsification. Alkalies assist emulsifi- 
cation by combining with the oil to form a soap which is 
also a good emulsifier, but should be used only when 
prescribed. Strong alcoholic solutions precipitate gums; 
hence, it should be well diluted and added in small 
quantities to the emulsion. Acids, glycerin, and salts 
take up water from the mucilage and cause the oil to 
separate. Therefore, they should be dissolved or diluted 
and added to the emulsion slowly, and with constant 
shaking or stirring. 

Volatile Oil Emulsions. — These may be made in a 
mortar, but are usually prepared in a bottle. Place the 
powdered emulsifier in a dry bottle, add the oil, and 
shake until the powder is wet. Then add the water and 
agitate until the emulsification is complete. Use the 
same proportions of water, acacia, and oil as in the 
Continental method. A more permanent emulsion may 
be made by adding from one-third to two-thirds as much 
almond oil as volatile oil, and using a mortar. The 
acacia must be proportionately increased. 

Fats, waxes, etc., should be melted and the water 
and mortar heated to the melting point of the substance 
to be emulsified. Proceed as in the case of fixed oils, 
using one part of acacia, one part fat, and one and one- 
half parts of water. 

Resinous Substances, Camphor, Menthol, Thy- 
mol, Salol, and Phosphorus. — These and similar 
substances are best emulsified by first making a solution 
in some bland oil, like sweet almond oil, and then 
emulsifying in the usual manner. 



NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL EMULSIONS 209 

Lycopodium, Lupulin. — These are resinous sub- 
stances, which may be emulsified by rubbing in a mortar 
with a little water until a granular mass is obtained. 
Add an equal weight of granulated acacia and triturate, 
gradually adding the water. 

Mechanical Emulsifiers. — Fine emulsions may be made 
with an egg-beater used in the place of the mortar and 
pestle. The very best emulsifier is the hard-rubber 
syringe, as recommended by Charles F. Hartwig and 
De Forrest. 1 The materials are mixed, as in the Con- 
tinental method. The mixture is then drawn into the 
syringe and rapidly ejected, preferably holding the end 
near the surface of the mixture. By this means even a 
cracked or poor emulsion may also be quickly redeemed. 
In the manufacture of emulsions on a large scale, the 
Sparrow mixer, the Phoenix emulsifier, Morton's egg 
beater, or the best forms of churns may be used. 

Preservation. — Emulsions should be freshly pre- 
pared when wanted, but if necessary to keep them for 
a length of time a preservative must be added. The 
addition of from 6 to 10 per cent., by volume, of alcohol 
is sometimes used. From 0.5 to 1 per cent, of chloroform 
is doubtless an equally good preservative, and less 
objectionable. The formulas of the Pharmacopoeia and 
National Formulary do not require special comment. 

1 Am. Pharm. Association, vol. xxiv, p. 85, and vol. xliii, p. 
561. 



14 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

SYRUPI. SYRUPS. 

Syrups are medical or aromatic substances contained 
in a nearly saturated solution of sugar. The principal 
solvent is water, but in many cases alcohol is present in 
small quantities, having been used as a solvent for the 
drug. However, in but seven pharmacopceial syrups 
and eight National Formulary syrups is the amount 
sufficient to act as a preservative. On the other hand, it 
frequently aids decomposition, by itself undergoing 
acetic fermentation. Several syrups contain acetic acid 
as a solvent. A pure, dry granulated sugar which meets 
the requirements of the Pharmacopeia, and sterilized 
freshly boiled distilled water should be used. The term 
syrup or simple syrup is applied to a solution containing 
85 Gm. of sugar in ICO Cc. of syrup having a specific 
gravity of about 1.313 at 25°. The amount of water 
present in the 100 Cc. of syrup is 46.3 Gm. Hence, the 
volume occupied by the 85 Gm. of sugar is about 54 Cc, 
which is approximately two-thirds of the 85 Gm. There- 
fore, sugar when dissolved in a liquid increases the volume 
of the liquid by a volume equal to approximately two- 
thirds of the weight of the sugar dissolved. Syrups 
containing only aromatic substances are used as vehicles, 
and are called aromatic syrups. Those containing sub- 
stances medicinally active are called medicinal syrups. 



PREPARATION 211 

Preparation. — Medicinal syrups are prepared both by 
mixing a solution of the substance with syrup, and also 
by dissolving the sugar in a solution of the substance, 
either by agitation, by percolation, or with the aid of 
heat. Formerly, syrups were frequently prepared by 
dissolving the sugar in an infusion or decoction of 
vegetable drug, or in fruit juices. In this case heat was 
essential as it coagulates the albuminous substance 
and acts as a clarifying agent. At the present time, 
syrups of vegetable drugs are commonly prepared from 
alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic preparations of the drug 
which are comparatively free from albuminous matter. 
When the alcoholic preparation contains oil or resinous 
matter which would be precipitated by mixing with 
water, the alcoholic preparation should be first triturated 
with some absorbent powder-like talc or magnesium 
carbonate to keep the precipitate which forms, in a 
finely divided condition, in order that a greater surface 
may be exposed to the action of the solvent. When time 
is an object, or when the solvent contains some viscid 
substance which retards solution, like acacia, heat may 
be applied to hasten the process. In no case should the 
heat be continued longer than necessary to bring the 
syrup to the boiling point. Continued heat, particularly 
in the presence of an acid, converts the sugar into reduc- 
ing or inverted sugar, and in many cases heat has an 
injurious effect upon the drug itself, especially upon 
one containing aromatic substances. 

In 1871 L. Orinsky suggested the manufacture of 
syrups by percolation. Since that time the process has 
gradually grown in favor, and at present the Pharma- 



212 SYRUPI. SYRUPS 

copoeia gives methods for the manufacture of eight 
different syrups by percolation. The method might well 
be applied to other syrups also, as it affords a beautifully 
clear product that keeps well and requires no filtration. 
A tall cylindrical percolator should be selected for this 
purpose, the neck loosely filled with absorbent cotton 
moistened with a few drops of water. The dry sugar is 
then introduced without packing or jarring, the surface 
levelled and covered with a piece of filter paper, and the 
solvent added. The first percolate should be returned 
until it comes through clear. The rate of flow for from 
500 Gm. to 2000 Gm. of sugar should be from 50 to 100 
drops per minute. 

Preservation. — Syrups should be kept in a cool place, 
in completely filled bottles of such size that when 
opened the contents will be used within a few weeks. 
Syrups kept in partially filled bottles and subject to 
varying temperatures rapidly spoil. Vapors of water 
fill the air space when the temperature is warm, and 
when cold, the vapors condense upon the sides of the 
bottle, quickly forming a layer of weak syrup over the 
surface, thus furnishing an excellent medium for the 
growth of microorganisms. Thoroughly cleanse and 
dry all syrup bottles before refilling. With proper 
precaution, syrups will keep as long as required without 
the use of preservatives, but when fermentation has 
appeared they should be thrown away. 

There are twenty-nine pharmacopceial syrups, seven 
of which are prepared by mixing solutions, tinctures, or 
fluidextracts directly with simple syrup. These may be 
freshly made when wanted. Of these, Syrupus Acidi 



SYRUPUS CALC1I LACTOPHOSPHATIS 213 

Hydriodici, Syrup of Hydriodic Acid, and Syrupus 
Ferri Quinince et Strychnince Phosphatum, Phosphate 
of Iron, Quinine, and Strychnine, sometimes called 
Easton's Syrup, darken on standing. Syrupus Kramerice, 
Syrup of Krameria, contains 22 per cent, of alcohol, 
by volume, and is the strongest alcoholic syrup made. 
Twelve syrups are prepared by direct solution. 

Syrupus Acacise. — Syrup of Acacia. — This syrup 
quickly becomes sour; hence, it should be freshly pre- 
pared when wanted. This may be easily done by using 
granulated acacia, sugar, and warm water. 

Syrupus Acidi Citrici. — Syrup of Citric Acid. — It is a 
good substitute for syrup of lemon, and as it is so easily 
prepared should be freshly made when needed. 

Syrupus Calcii Lactophosphatis. — Syrup of Calcium 
Lactophosphate. — Calcium carbonate is first dissolved 
in lactic acid to form calcium lactate, carbon dioxide, 
and water. 

Reaction: 

CaC0 3 4- 2HC 3 H 5 3 = Ca(C 3 H 5 3 ) 2 + C0 2 + H 2 0. 

Calcium Lactic acid. Calcium lactate. Carbon Water, 
carbonate. dioxide. 

Upon the addition of phosphoric acid the tricalcic 
phosphate is first precipitated, then redissolved in the 
excess of phosphoric acid to form the soluble calcium 
acid phosphate, and lactic acid. 

Reactions: 

3Ca(C 3 H;,0 3 ), + 2H 8 P0 4 = Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 6HC 3 H 5 3 . 

Calcium lactate. Phosphatic acid. Calcium phosphate. Lactic acid. 

Ca 8 (P0 4 ) 2 + H 3 P0 4 = 3CaHP0 4 . 

Calcium phosphate. Phosphatic acid. Calcium acid phosphate. 



214 SYRUPI. SYRUPS 

Syrupus Calcis. — Syrup of Lime. — In the manufacture 
of this syrup the calcium oxide, when heated with water, 
forms the hydroxide. 

Reaction: 

CaO + H 2 = CaH 2 2 

The mixing with sugar and boiling aids the chemical 
action, and part of the sugar unites with the calcium 
hydroxide to form calcium saccharates, which are more 
soluble than calcium hydroxide. 

Reaction: 

CaH,0 2 + C 12 H 22 0„ = CaO.C 12 H 22 0„ 4- H 2 0. 

Calcium hydroxide. Sugar. Calcium saccharate. Water. 

This accounts for the fact that the syrup contains 
more lime than is present in lime water. Bright copper 
or tinned iron receptacles are used in boiling the syrup, 
as hot calcium hydroxide acts upon glass. The syrup 
should be protected from the air, especially while filter- 
ing, to prevent the absorption of carbon dioxide, which 
precipitates the lime as a carbonate. 

Syrupus Ferri Iodidi. — Syrup of Iodide of Iron. — The 
iodine unites with the iron to form ferrous iodide. 

Reaction: 

Fe + I 2 = Fel 2 . 

The reaction increases rapidly, and is due to the facts, 
first, that the chemical change produces heat which aids 
the reaction, and secondly, that the iodide formed is a 
solvent for the iodine. Do not allow the reaction to 
become too violent, as part of the iodine will be volatil- 
ized and thus lost. Ferrous iodide is easily oxidized, 
hence part of the sugar is added to the hot solution to 



SYRUPUS PRUNI VIRGINIANS 215 

prevent oxidation. The syrup should be protected from 
air, but light acts as a reducing agent and prevents 
oxidation. Hypophosphorous acid is also added as a 
preservative to prevent oxidation, and to reduce any 
iodine that may be liberated. 

Syrupus Hypophosphitum Compositus. — Compound 
Syrup of Hypophosphites. — The sodium citrate aids the 
solution of the iron and manganese hypophosphites, 
possibly forming double salts. The free alkaloids, 
quinine and strychnine, are dissolved by the hypo- 
phosphorous acid forming the hypophosphites. 

Reaction: 

C 20 H 24 N 2 O 2 + HPH 2 2 = C, H 24 N 2 OBPH 2 O 2 

Quinine. Hypophosphorous acid. Quinine hypophosphite. 

C 21 H 22 X 2 2 + HPH,0 2 = C 21 H 22 N 2 2 HPH 2 2 . 

Strychnine. Hypophosphorous acid. Strychnine hypophosphite. 

Syrupus Ipecacuanhse. — Syrup of Ipecac. — This is 
prepared by shaking the fluidextract together with 
water containing acetic acid. The acid holds the active 
principle in solution, while the inert matter is precipi- 
tated. After standing twenty-four hours the liquid is 
filtered, mixed with the glycerin, which acts as a pre- 
servative, and the sugar, dissolved by agitation. 

Syrupus Picis Liquidae. — Syrup of Tar. — The object 
of triturating the tar with sand is to increase the surface 
exposed to the action of the solvent. It is first washed 
with water to remove pyroligneous acid and other 
objectionable substances. 

Syrupus Pruni Virginian ae. — Syrup of Wild Cherry. — 
This syrup is prepared, by percolation, from the wild 
cherry bark. The percolate is received in a vessel 



216 SYRUPI. SYRUPS 

containing glycerin, which prevents the precipitation 
of the tannin. Formerly the glycerin was used as part 
of the menstruum, but this increases the amount of the 
tannin and produces a darker preparation without 
increasing the active constituent. The sugar must be 
dissolved without heat, as heat drives off the hydro- 
cyanic acid which has been formed by the action of 
enzyme on the amygdalin, thus forming benzaldehyde, 
hydrocyanic acid, and glucose. 

Reaction: 
C 20 H 27 NO n + 2H 2 + enzyme = C 6 H 6 COH + HCN + 2C 6 H 12 6 . 

Syrupus Rhei Syrup of Rhubarb. 

Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus. — Aromatic Syrup of Rhu- 
barb. — In these syrups the potassium carbonate is used 
to combine with the resinous matter, and prevent its 
precipitation. 

Syrupus Rosae. — Syrup of Rose. — This syrup contains 
sulphuric acid, which improves both flavor and color. 

Syrupus Scillse Compositus. — Compound Syrup of 
Squill. Hive Syrup. — In this syrup, talc is used as 
a clarifying agent. Magnesium carbonate cannot be 
used on account of the acetic acid in the fluidextract of 
squill employed. The manufacture of four syrups 
involves chemical action to some extent. 

In the National Formulary there are formulas for 
thirty-nine syrups. Many of these are intended for 
extemporaneous compounding, and are prepared either 
from fluidextracts or tinctures. This is the reason why 
nearly half of the syrups contain alcohol. In a few 
cases more alcohol is present than is necessary, and the 
amount will doubtless be reduced in the next edition. 



SYRUPUS FERRI SACCHARATI SOLUBILIS 217 

In most cases the formulas are sufficiently explicit, 

and explanatory notes are unnecessary. 

Syrupus Calcii Iodidi. — Syrup of Calcium Iodide. — 

In the manufacture of this syrup the first portion of the 

iodine unites with the iron wire to form ferrous iodide, 

Fe + I 2 = Fel 2 , which is separated from the excess of 

iron, and the remainder of the iodine added, which is 

dissolved by the ferrous iodide. This does not unite to 

form the ferric iodide, as is generally supposed, but 

the iron is oxidized by the iodine to the ferric hydroxide 

upon the addition of calcium and heat, so that the final 

reaction may be expressed as follows: 

Reaction: 

2FeI 2 + I 2 + 3CaC0 3 + 3H 2 = 2Fe(OH) 3 + 3CaI 2 + 3C0 2 . 

Syrupus Eriodictyi Aromaticus. — Aromatic Syrup of 
Yerba Santa. Syrup of Corrigens. — This syrup con- 
tains potassium hydroxide to hold the resinous matter 
of the eriodictyon in solution. 

Syrupus Ferri Citro-iodidi. — Tasteless Syrup of Iodide 
of Iron. — The first portion of iodine added to the iron 
forms ferrous iodide, and the second portion used is 
dissolved by the ferrous iodide. This when mixed with 
potassium citrate forms a green solution of unknown 
composition. It is commonly called citro-iodide of 
iron. 

Syrupus Ferri Saccharati Solubilis. — Syrup of Soluble 
Saccharated Iron. — In this syrup the solution of ferric 
chloride is mixed with syrup, thus preventing the pre- 
cipitation of ferric hydroxide when the sodium hydrox- 
ide is added. When this solution is poured into five 
times its volume of boiling water and boiled for a few 



218 SYRUPl. SYRUPS 

minutes the iron is precipitated as ferric oxide. After 
washing, this precipitate is mixed with sugar and boiled. 
Sodium hydroxide is then cautiously added until the 
magma is dissolved. Probably the solution consists 
of ferri oxysaccharate of indefinite composition. It is 
protected from light to prevent the reducing action which 
light has upon ferric compounds in the presence of 
organic matter. 

Syrupus Phosphatum Compositus. — Compound Syrup 
of the Phosphates. Chemical Food. — The carbonates of 
calcium, potassium, and sodium are dissolved in citric 
and phosphoric acids, and then mixed with a solution of 
iron and ammonium phosphate. The resultant mixture, 
though designated as phosphates, doubtless consists 
of double salts or citrophosphates of unknown com- 
position. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

VINEGARS AND WINES. 
ACETA. VINEGARS. 

The official vinegars are solutions of medicinal sub- 
stances in dilute acetic acid, containing 6 per cent, of 
absolute acid. They are made by maceration and 
expression. There are two pharmacopceial vinegars 
only. 

Acetum Opii. — Vinegar of Opium. — This is prepared 
by maceration and expression. Each 100 Cc. contains 
10 Gm. of opium, 3 Gm. of myristica, and 20 Gm. of 
sugar. 

Acetum Scillae. — Vinegar of Squill. — Each 100 Cc. 
contains 10 Gm. of squill. The expressed liquid is 
heated to the boiling point before filtering, to remove 
albuminous matter. The National Formulary contains 
three vinegars, Acetum Aromaticum (Aromatic Vine- 
gar), Acetum Lobelise (Vinegar of Lobelia), and Acetum 
Sanguinarise (Vinegar of Sanguinaria). 

VINA. WINES. 

Pharmacopceial wines are either natural wines or 
solutions of medicinal substances in natural wine. The 
Pharmacopeia recognizes two natural wines. 

Vinum Album. — White Wine. — This is the fermented 
juice of the fresh grape free from seeds, skins, and 
stems. It should be a dry wine containing from 7 per 



220 



VINEGARS AND WINES 



cent, to 12 per cent, of absolute alcohol by weight, 
equalling from 8.5 per cent, to 15 per cent, by volume. 
White wine is commonly preferred for the manufacture of 
medicinal wines, as it contains less tannic acid. Wines 
containing much tannic acid cannot be dispensed with 
alkaloids or iron preparations. Wines may be detan- 
nated by adding 5 Gm. of finely powdered gelatin to 
each liter of wine and agitating occasionally for forty- 
eight hours and then filtering. The wine should be kept 
as cold as possible to prevent the solution of the gelatin. 
Good white wine containing only a trace of tannic acid 
can be obtained. This need not be detannated. 

Vinum Rubrum. — Red Wine. — This is the juice of 
fresh red grapes fermented with the skins. The alco- 
holic strength is the same as that of white wine. The 
Pharmacopoeia furnishes tests for the detection of arti- 
ficial colorings in wines, and methods for determining 
their alcoholic strengths. 

Table of Wines. 







Gm. or 


Abs. ale. 


Official name. 


Ingredient. 


Cc. in 


%by 






100. 


vol. 


Vinum antimonii. 


Antimony and potassium 
tartrate. 


0.4 


28.0 


Cocae. 


Fluidextract of coca. 


6.5 


23.0 


Colchici seminis. 


Fluidextract of colchicum 
seed. 


10.0 


32.0 


Ergota. 


Ergot. 


20.0 


25.7 


Ferri. 


Iron and ammonium ci- 
trate. 


4.0 


17.0 


Ferri amarum (bitter 


Iron and quinine citrate. 


5.0 


14.0 


wine of iron). 








Ipecacuanhae. 


Fluidextract of ipecac. 


10.0 


28.0 


Opii. 


Opium. 


10.0 


27.0 



VINA. WINES 221 

Medicated Wines. — Alcohol is added as a preservative 
to all except two of the medicinal wines. With a single 
exception, all medicated wines are made by direct 
solution. Wine of opium is made by maceration. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

ELIXIRIA. ELIXIRS. 

Elixirs are aromatic sweetened hydro-alcoholic 
vehicles, or medicated preparations. They have been 
designated as elegant pharmaceuticals, because of their 
beautiful appearance when properly made, but in 
American pharmacy their sole purpose is to improve the 
taste of medicines. Formerly the term elixir was applied 
by alchemists to powders supposedly capable of convert- 
ing the baser metals into gold and silver. Later the term 
was also applied to a few very disagreeable tasting 
liquids, as Elixir Froprietatis, which is similar to com- 
pound tincture of aloes, and Elixir Salutis, similar to 
compound tincture of senna. What might be termed 
the elixir "fad" reached its height about the year 1883, 
when J. U. Lloyd published a most interesting work 
on elixirs, giving their complete history and containing 
formulas for two hundred and fifty of them. 

The third edition of the National Formulary presents 
eighty-eight elixirs. The alcoholic strength varies from 
7 per cent, to 62 per cent, by volume. The average 
alcoholic strength of elixirs is about that of aromatic 
elixir, which is 23 per cent, by volume. There are 
twenty-one elixirs containing less than 20 per cent., 
forty-three containing between 20 per cent, and 30 per 
cent., twenty-one between 30 per cent, and 40 per cent., 
and three containing more than 40 per cent. The 



FERRI QUININE ET STRYCHNINE PHOSPHATUM 223 

majority of elixirs may be prepared by mixing or dis- 
solving the medicinal substance in aromatic or adjuvant 
elixirs. For this reason the Pharmacopoeia has given 
formulas for only three elixirs. 

Elixir Adjuvans. — Adjuvant Elixir. — This contains 
12 Cc. of fluidextract of licorice and 88 Cc. of aromatic 
elixir. It is especially intended for disguising the bitter 
taste of drugs or alkaline or neutral salts. It should not 
be used with acids, as they precipitate the sweet prin- 
ciple of licorice. 

Elixir Aromaticum. — Aromatic Elixir. Simple Elixir. 
— This is a sweet hydro-alcoholic solution flavored with 
compound spirits of orange. 

Elixir Ferri QuininaB et Strychninse Phosphatum. — 
Elixir of the Phosphates of Iron, Quinine, and Strych- 
nine. — Better results will be obtained in the manufac- 
ture of this elixir if the phosphoric acid be diluted with 
aromatic elixir before adding to the alkaloids. The 
ammonium acetate, formed from acetic acid and ammo- 
nium carbonate, is added to the solution of the alkaloids 
to prevent precipitation when the iron solution is added. 
This is a good formula if the directions as to neutrali- 
zation, etc., be carefully followed; otherwise, it results in 
failure. This elixir is very sensitive to the action of 
light, and should be kept and dispensed in amber- 
colored bottles. 

The methods for the manufacture of the National 
Formulary elixirs are so simple that special comment 
is unnecessary. A number of these elixirs have been 
introduced to meet the demands of physicians, without 
special regard to their therapeutic value. 



224 ELIXIRIA. ELIXIRS 

Elixir Digestivum Compositum. — Digestive Elixir. — 
This contains pepsin, pancreatin, and diastase in an 
acid elixir. The first two are incompatible and should 
not be prescribed in the same mixture. 

Elixir Pepsini Bismuthi et Strychninae. — Elixir Pepsin, 
Bismuth, and Strychnine. — This is a decided improve- 
ment upon the old formula, as it is acid, and pepsin 
should be prescribed only in acid solutions. Bismuth 
has been said to be incompatible with pepsin, and it 
has been proved that pepsin rapidly becomes inactive 
in alcoholic solutions having the strength of ordinary 
elixirs. In the third edition of the National Formulary 
an attempt has been made to reduce the quantity of 
alcohol in all pepsin elixirs, and to preserve them by 
the use of glycerin instead. It is a marked improvement. 

Elixir Acidi Salicylici. — Elixir of Salicylic Acid. — 
Here the potassium citrate is used to dissolve the 
salicylic acid, which is only sparingly soluble in aqueous 
menstruum. 

Elixir Ammonii Valeratis. — Elixir of Ammonium 
Valerate. — This elixir develops a most disagreeable odor 
due to the presence of free valeric acid, caused by the 
loss of ammonium which occurs upon standing. Hence 
a few drops of ammonia water should be added before 
dispensing. 

Elixir Gentianse. — Elixir of Gentian. — In this elixir, 
35 Cc. of solution of tersulphate of iron should be used 
to furnish sufficient ferric hydroxide to insure the com- 
plete removal of the tannin-like substance in the fluid- 
extract of gentian. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

SPIRITUS. SPIRITS. 

Spirits are alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic solutions of 
volatile substances. Most of them are simple alcoholic 
solutions of volatile oils. One is made by chemical 
action, one by volatilization and solution of gas, and two 
by distillation. Altogether, there are twenty pharma- 
copceial spirits. 

Spiritus iEtheris Compositus. — Compound Spirits of 
Ether. — It is frequently called Hoffman's anodyne, but 
it is not identical with the Hoffman's anodyne of com- 
merce. The latter is a by-product from the distillation 
of ether, and contains heavy and light oils of wine. 

Spiritus Athens Nitrosi. — Spirits of Nitrous Ether. — 
This should contain not less than 4 per cent, of ethyl 
nitrite. It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid 
on sodium nitrite and alcohol. 

Reactions: 

2NaN0 2 + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2HN0 2 

Sodium nitrite. Sulphuric acid. Sodium sulphate. Nitrous acid. 

C 2 N 5 OH + HN0 2 = C 2 H 5 N0 2 + H 2 

Alcohol. Nitrous acid. Ethyl nitrite. Water. 

The ethyl nitrite is separated, and washed with ice- 
cold water and monohydrated sodium carbonate to 
remove acid. It is then shaken with potassium car- 
bonate to remove the water, and, finally, diluted with 
15 



226 SPIRITUS. SPIRITS 

alcohol to the required strength. It should be kept in 
small amber-colored vials, and in a cool dark place. 
Unless so kept, it soon becomes worthless. 

In the method of assay the spirits are decomposed by 
sulphuric acid, in the presence of potassium iodide. It 
is represented by the following equation : 

2C 2 H 5 N0 2 + 2H 2 S0 4 + 2KI = 

Ethyl nitrite. Sulphuric acid. Potassium iodide. 

2C a H 5 OH + 2NO + 2KHS0 4 + I 2 

Alcohol. Nitric oxide. Potassium acid sulphate. Iodine. 

The nitric oxide gas is measured. For details of 
method, see United States Pharmacopoeia. 

Spiritus Ammonise. — Spirits of Ammonia. — This spirit 
should contain 10 percent, of ammonia gas (NH 3 ). It 
is made by gently heating stronger ammonia water and 
collecting the gas in alcohol which has been recently 
distilled and kept in a glass receptacle. Ordinary 
alcohol is liable to contain organic impurities received 
from the barrels, and is darkened by the ammonia. 

Spiritus Ammonise Aromaticus. — Aromatic Spirits of 

Ammonia. — The Pharmacopoeia directs the use of 

ammonium carbonate in translucent pieces consisting 

of ammonium acid carbonate and carbamate. When 

dissolved in the presence of ammonium water, both are 

converted into normal ammonium carbonate. Thus : 

Reaction: 

NH 4 HC0 3 . NH 4 NH 2 C0 2 + NH 4 HO = 2(NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 . 

Ammonium and Ammonium Ammonia. Ammonium 

bicarbonate. carbamate. carbonate. 

When the pharmacopceial carbonate becomes opaque, 
it consists principally of the bicarbonate, which is 
insoluble in alcohol. If this be used in the manufacture 



SPIRITUS GLYCERYLIS NITRATIS 227 

of the spirits, the ammonia water will be insufficient to 
convert it into the normal carbonate. 

Spiritus Gly eery lis Nitratis. — Spirit of Glyceryl Trini- 
trate. Spirit of Nitroglycerin. Spirit of Glonoin. — This 
contains 1 per cent, by weight of glyceryl trinitrate, 
C 3 H 5 (N0 3 ) 3 . It should be kept in tin cans in a cool 
place. In case it should be spilled, it should be de- 
composed by pouring over it a solution of potassium 
hydroxide. Otherwise there is danger of an explosion 
when the alcohol has evaporated. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

TINCTURA. TINCTURES. 

Tinctures are alcoholic or hydro-alcoholic solutions. 
They may contain vegetable, mineral, or animal sub- 
stances, and be volatile or non-volatile. They differ 
from spirits, as most of them are solutions of non- 
volatile substances. The majority of them are made by 
percolation, but a number are made by maceration, and 
a few by direct solution. The intention has been to so 
adjust the alcoholic strength of the menstruum that it will 
dissolve all the active constituents with the least amount 
of inert matter. It is intended also to make as weak an 
alcoholic preparation as possible — an advantage when 
dispensing — as tinctures are less apt to cause precipi- 
tation on mixing with aqueous liquids. In a number 
of cases glycerin has been used to hold the dissolved 
constituents in solution, especially in the case of those 
containing astringent principles. Of such tinctures two 
contain ammonia and one acetic acid. Deposits in 
tinctures are often caused by exposure to strong light, 
air, and varying temperature. The deposits usually 
consist of inert matter, which may be rejected. Tinctures 
should be kept at a uniform temperature, and preferably 
in amber-colored bottles. The following tabulation is 
not intended to be used in manufacturing, but is 
arranged for convenient study, placing the tinctures in 
the order of their drug strength. 



OFFICIAL TINCTURES 



229 



Official Tinctures Arranged According to Strength 
of Drugs. 







Drug 


Menstruum.f 














O) 




Official name. 


Ingredient. 


in 100 


ti-i 


u 


g fi 


"S^ 


Method. 






Cc* 


cd'o 


© 




13 










P-3 




>> 

o 


.3.3 




Tinctura — 


f Opium. 


0.4] 












Opi i Camphorata 


j Benzoic acid 
I Camphor 
[_ Oil of Anise 


0.4 ' 
0.4 f 


48 


48 


4.0 


46 


Maceration 




0.4J 














Oil of Lav- 


] 














ender Fl. 


0.8 














Oil of Rose- 
















mary- 


0.2 












Lavendulse 


Saigon Cin- 
namon 


. 


75 


25 




70 


Maceration 


Composita 


2.0 














Cloves 


0.5 














Myristica 


1.0 














Red Saun- 
















[ ders 


1.0, 












Gambir 


f Gambir 


5.0" 












Composita 


< Saigon Cin- 
( namon 


2.5, 


50 


50 




48 


Maceration 


Kino 


Kino 


5.0 


65 


20 


15.0 


61 


Heat 


Moschi 


Musk 
r Cardamom 


5.0 
2.5^ 


50 


50 




48 


Maceration 


Cardamomi 


Saigon Cin- 
namon 


2.5 - 


50 


50 




48 


Maceration 


Composita 


Caraway 
„ Cochineal 
' Iodine 


1.2 

0.5J 

7.0j 












Iodi 


- Potassium 
Iodide 


5.oj 


100 






94 


Solution 



* The number of grams of the substance given in 100 Cc. of a 
preparation multiplied by 0.57 will give the number of grains in 
a fluidram. 

f The figures represent the volume in 100 volumes of the 
menstruum, those under absolute alcohol are necessarily approxi- 
mate, as alcohol and water contract when mixed, thus increasing 
the strength by volume. However, in the finished tincture this 
is more than counterbalanced by the moisture and extractive 
taken from the drug. The moisture and extractive could be 
determined for each drug, which in a few cases amounts to from 
10 to 15 per cent. Tolu reduces the alcoholic strength from 94 
per cent, in the menstruum to 80 per cent, in the tincture; but it 
would only be approximate, as the amount varies with different 
samples of the same drug. 



230 



TINCTURA. TINCTURES 



Official name. 



Tinctura — 

Aconiti 
Belladonna? Fol. 

Cannabis Indicse 

Cantharidis 
Capsici 
Colchici Seminis 

Digitalis 
Gelsemii 
Hyoscyami 
Lobeliae 
Nucis Vomicae 



Ingredient. 



Drug 

mlOO 

Cc. 




VIenstruum 








c 

•a 

o 

>> 

O 


° o 



Opii 

Opii Deodorati 

Physostigmatis 

Sanguinarise 



Scillae 

Stramonii 

Strophanthi 

Vanilla? 

Veratri 

Ferri Chloridi 



Gentianae 
Composita 

Aloes 

Aloes et Myrrhse 

Ipecacuanha? et 
Opii 

Cinchonae 
Composita 



Aconite 

Belladonna 
Leaves 

Indian Canna- 
bis 

Cantharides 

Capsicum 

Colchicum 
Seed 

Digitalis 

Gelsemium 

Hyoscyamus 

Lobelia 

Extract of Nux 
Vomica, 
2 Gm. 

Opium 

Opium 

Physostigma 

Sanguinaria 



Squill 

Stramonium 
Strophanthus 
Vanilla 
Veratrum 
Ferric Chloride 
(Sol. 35 Cc.) 
f Gentian 
I Bitter Or- 
ange Peel 
[ Cardamom 
Aloes 
Licorice 
f Aloes 
■\ Myrrh 
( Licorice 
/ Ipecac 
\ Opium 
f Cinchona 
Bitter Or 
ange Peel 
[ Serpentaria 



10.0 


70 


10.0 


50 


10.0 


100 


10.0 


100 


10.0 


95 


10.0 


60 


10.0 


50 


10.0 


65 


10.0 


50 


10.0 


50 


10.0 


75 


10.0 


50 


10.0 


80 


10.0 


100 


10.0 


60 


10.0 


75 


10.0 


50 


10.0 


65 


10.0 


65 


10.0 


100 


13.3 


65 


10. ol 
4.0 [ 




60 


1.0 1 




10.0) 
20. 0J 


50 


10.01 




10.0 [• 


75 


10. OJ 




10.0) 
10. 0J 






10.0 ] 
8.0 [ 




67.5 


1 2.0J 





30 



50 



acetic 
acid 
2.0 



7.5 



■St? Method. 



I 
65 i Percolation 



48 Percolation 



Percolation 
Percolation 
Percolation 



56 Percolation 

48 Percolation 

61 Percolation 

48 | Percolation 

48 Percolation 



Solution 
Inf. & percol. 
Sp. remarks 
Percolation 
Percolation 



Maceration 
Percolation 
Percolation 
Mac. and Per. 
Percolation 

Solution 
Percolation 

Maceration 
Maceration 
Special 

Percolation 



OFFICIAL TINCTURES 



231 



Menstruum. 



Official name. 



Ingredient. 



Drug 

in 100 

Cc. 






tM s 



If 



Method. 



Tinctura — 



Benzoini 
Composita 

Arnicae 
Asafcetida? 
Aurantii Amari 

Benzoini 

Calendula) 

Calumbae 

Cardamomi 

Cimicifugse 

Cinchonae 

Cinnamomi 

Gallae 
Guaiaci 
Guaiaci Ammo- 

niata 
Hydrastis - 
Krameria? 
Myrrha? 
Pyrethri 
Quassia? 
QuillaJ33 
Serpentariae 
Tolutana 
Valerianae 
Valeriana? Am. 
Zingiberis 

Rhei 



Rhei Aromatica 



Aurantii Dulcis 

Lactucarii 
Lemonis 
Herbarium 
Recentium 



( Benzoin 

j Aloes 

| Storax 

[_ Balsam Tolu 
Arnica 
Asafetida 
Bitter Orange 

Peel 
Benzoin 
Calendula 
Calumba 
Cardamom 
Cimicifuga 
Cinchona 
Saigon Cinna- 
mon 
Nutgall 
Guaiac 
Guaiac 

Hydrastis 

Krameria 

Myrrh 

Pyrethrum 

Quassia 

Quillaja 

Serpentaria 

Tolu 

Valerian 

Valerian 

Ginger 

f Rhubarb 

I Cardamom 

f Rhubarb 

j Saigon Cin- 
namon 
Cloves 

[ Myristica 
Sweet Orange 
Peel 



10.0] 
2.0 ! 



8.0 j 
4.0J 
20.0 
20.0 

20.0 
20.0 
120.0 
120.0 
J20.0 
|20.0 
20.0 

20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 



20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20.0 
20 
4 
20.0 



:«} 



4.0 
4.0 
2.0 

50.0 



Lactucarium ! 50 . 
Lemon Peel J50.0 

Fresh Herbs '50.0 



100 




50 


50 


100 




60 


40 


100 




100 




60 


40 


50 


50 


100 




67.5 


25 


67.5 


25 


90 




100 





7.5 



7.5 
10.0 



94 



48 
94 

56 
94 
94 
56 
48 
94 
63 

63 

85 

94 

(Arom. Sp. Am.) 66 

61 

48 
94 
94 
33 
33 
61 
94 
70 
(Arom. Sp. Am.) 66 
94 

47 



65 


35 




50 


50 




100 






100 






35 65 




35! 65 




65 35 




100 




75 


25 





100 

50 


40 


10 


50 


40 


10 


100 






50 


q. s. 


25 


100 






100 







75 

37 
75 

Var 



Maceration 



Maceration 
Maceration 

Percolation 
Maceration 
Percolation 
Percolation 
Percolation 
Percolation 
Percolation 

Percolation 
Percolation 
Maceration 
Maceration 

Percolation 

Percolation 

Maceration 

Percolation 

Percolation 

Decoction 

Percolation 

Maceration 

Percolation 

Percolation 

Percolation 

Percolation 



Percolation 



Percolation 
Percolation 
Maceration 

Maceration 



232 TINCTURA. TINCTURES 

Tinctura Aconiti. — Tincture of Aconite. — This has 
been reduced in strength from 35 Gm. to 10 Gm. of 
aconite in 100 Cc. of tincture, and should be standardized 
by assay to contain 0.045 Gm. of aconitine in 100 Cc. 
of tincture. Aconitine decomposes readily in aqueous 
solutions. Accordingly, when preparations of aconite 
are prescribed in water they should not be used after 
standing twenty-four hours. 

Tinctura Aloes. — Tincture of Aloes. — It contains 
licorice, to disguise the disagreeable taste of the 
aloes. 

Tinctura Auranti Dulcis. — Tincture of Sweet Orange. — 
This tincture should be made by shaving or grating the 
thin outer rind only, which contains the oil cells. When 
made in this manner it has a much finer flavor and odor 
than when made from the oil. This applies equally to 
the tincture of lemon. 

Tinctura Belladonna. — Tincture of Belladonna.— It is 
made from the leaves of the plant, and should be stand- 
ardized by assay to contain 0.03 Gm. of alkaloid in 
100 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Benzoini Compositae. — Compound Tincture of 
Benzoin. — It is similar to Friar's, Turlington's, Persian, 
and Swedish balsams. 

Tinctura Cinchonse. — Tincture of Cinchona. — This 
should be standardized to contain 0.75 Gm. of anhy- 
drous ether-soluble alkaloids in 100 Cc. of tincture. 
The compound tincture of cinchona is not assayed, but 
should be made from assayed bark. In both cinchona 
tinctures glycerin is employed to prevent the deposit of 
oxidation products from cinchotannic acid. 



TINCTURA LACTUCARII 233 

Tinctura Colchici Seminis. — Tincture of Colchicum 
Seed. — This should be standardized by assay to contain 
0.04 Gm. of colchicine in 100 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Ferri Chloridi. — Tincture of Chloride of Iron. 
— This should be prepared at least three months before 
using to permit the acid in the solution to convert part 
of the alcohol into ethers. Ferric salts in the presence 
of organic substances are reduced to the ferrous con- 
dition by strong light. Hence, the tincture should be 
kept in amber-colored bottles. 

Tinctura Hydrastis. — Tincture of Hydrastis. — It should 
be standardized by assay to contain 0.4 gm. of hydras- 
tine in 1C0 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Hyoscyami. — Tincture of Hyoscyamus. — 
It should be standardized by assay to contain 0.007 Gm. 
of mydriatic alkaloid in 100 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Iodi. — Tincture of Iodine. — This contains 
some potassium iodide which is added as a preservative 
and also to prevent precipitation by water. 

Tinctura Ipecacuanhae et Opii. — Tincture of Ipecac and 
Opium. — This may be considered as a liquid form of 
Dover's Powder, but is an improvement upon that 
preparation because made from the deodorized tincture. 
It is prepared by evaporating 100 Cc. of the deodorized 
tincture to 85 Cc, and adding 10 Cc. of fluidextract of 
ipecac; then add dilute alcohol to 100 Cc. 

Tinctura Lactucarii. — Tincture of Lactucarium. — This 
is used principally in the manufacture of the syrup. 
It is, therefore, important that it should mix readily with 
water or glycerin without precipitation. This is accom- 
plished by first extracting with benzin. This removes 



234 TINCTURA. TINCTURES 

the inert caoutchouc-like substance without dissolving 
the active constituents. The sand is used to break up 
the mass and to increase the surface exposed to the 
action of the solvent. 

Tinctura Lemonis. — Tincture of Lemon. — This tincture 
is used in place of the former spirit of lemon made from 
the oil. (See Tincture of Orange.) 

Tinctura Nucis Vomicae. — Tincture of Nux Vomica. — 
This tincture is made from the extract and standardized 
by assay to contain 0.1 Gm. of strychnine in 100 Cc. of 
tincture. This is practically equivalent to 10 Gm. of 
standard drug. 

Tinctura Opii. — Tincture of Opium. Laudanum. — 
Laudanum is prepared by macerating opium with hot 
water, and adding sufficient alcohol to make the men- 
struum equivalent to dilute alcohol. It would be a 
decided improvement to exhaust 100 Gm. of opium with 
water, and evaporate to 500 Cc. Then add alcohol to 
make 1000 Cc. and allow to stand twenty-four hours, 
and filter. The tincture should be standardized by 
assay to contain between 1.2 and 1.25 Gm. of morphine 
in 100 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Opii Deodorati. — Deodorized Tincture of 
Opium. — This tincture is prepared by extracting opium 
with water, concentrating, and removing the odor and 
the caoutchouc-like substance by washing with purified 
benzin. The last of the benzin is removed by evapora- 
tion, the residue dissolved in water, and the alcohol 
added as a preservative. It should be standardized by 
assay to contain between 1.2 and 1.25 Gm. of morphine 
in 100 Cc. of tincture. 



TINCTURA VANILLA 235 

Tinctura Physostigmatis. — Tincture of Calabar Bean. 
— This should be standardized by assay to contain 
0.014 Gm. of ether-soluble alkaloid in 100 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Sanguinariae. — Tincture of Blood Root. — This 
tincture contains acetic acid, put in to render the alka- 
loid more soluble and to preserve the tincture. 

Tinctura Stramonii. — Tincture of Stramonium. — This 
is made from the leaves, and is standardized to contain 
0.025 Gm. of mydriatic alkaloids in 1C0 Cc. of tincture. 

Tinctura Strophanthi. — Tincture of Strophanthus. — 
This deposits fatty matter which should be rejected. 
According to Scoville and Lowe, this can be completely 
removed by placing the tincture in a freezing mixture 
for two hours and filtering while cold. 

Tinctura Vanillse. — Tincture of Vanilla. — The bean 
is partially extracted to remove the bulk of the soft 
extractive. The dregs are then triturated with sugar, 
to aid in comminution. Further extraction is made by 
percolation. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

FLUIDEXTRACTA. FLUIDEXTRACTS. 

Fluidextracts are alcoholic, hydro-alcoholic, or 
acetic preparations of such strength that each cubic 
centimeter represents one gram of the drug. They are, 
therefore, concentrated preparations, uniform in strength 
and containing sufficient alcohol to make them per- 
manent. All fluidextracts are made by percolation, but 
the methods of manipulation may differ. The Phar- 
macopoeia furnishes a method for each fluidextract, but 
in its introduction permission is given to use reperco- 
lation. Later, in the "Additional Notices, May 1, 
1907/' permission is given to use other methods so long 
as the finished product is identical with that made by 
the official method. This is only just, since, when 
manufacturing on a large scale, it is frequently necessary 
to modify the details of a method. The general prin- 
ciples of the official method may be briefly stated as 
follows : 

Official Method. — The drug of the required degree of 
fineness is moistened with a given quantity of men- 
struum and packed in a percolator. The menstruum is 
then poured on. When the percolate begins to drop 
from the percolator the lower orifice is closed and the 
drug macerated for a given time. Percolation is then 
allowed to proceed slowly until the drug is exhausted. 



REPERCOLATION 237 

The first 700 Cc. to 900 Cc. of the percolate (for each 
1000 Gm. of drug) is reserved, and the remainder 
evaporated to a soft extract, at a temperature not exceed- 
ing 50° C. This extract is then dissolved in the reserve 
portion, sufficient menstruum being added to make 
1000 Cc. The active constituents of organic drugs are 
injured to a greater or less degree by the continued 
application of heat. For this reason the strong first 
percolate is reserved, and only the weaker percolate 
heated, which contains not more than from 10 to 30 
per cent, of the extractive matter. The reason for 
evaporating to a soft extract instead of to the required 
volume is, that the percolate contains some water 
which formed part of the menstruum, or was taken 
from the drug or atmosphere. During distillation or 
evaporation the alcohol will pass off first. Conse- 
quently, the last portion consists principally of water, 
which added to the reserve portion would change the 
alcoholic strength and cause precipitation. Some 
recommend using the reserve portion as finished fluid- 
extract, discarding the marc without exhausting it. 
It is thereby assumed that from 70 per cent, to 80 per 
cent, of the active constituents of the drug is dissolved 
in the first 70 Cc. or 80 Cc. of the percolate from each 
100 Gm. of drug. This would doubtless be a saving of 
time and expense, and dispense with the use of heat, 
but would require greater care and skill to insure a 
uniform strength. 

Repercolation. — This is the name given by Dr. Squibb 
to that method of manufacturing fluidextracts in which 
the percolate evaporated by the official method is 



238 FLUIDEXTRACTA. FLUIDEXTRACTS 

reserved for the percolation of fresh portions of the 
drug. By this method 1000 Gm. of the drug are moist- 
ened and percolated, as in the official method, until 
750 Cc. of percolate are obtained. This is reserved as 
finished fluidextract. Percolation is then continued 
until 4000 Cc. of percolate are obtained. These are 
received in four separate portions of 1000 Cc. each, 
marked Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the order in which received. 
It will be recalled that in the preceding operation there 
were no reserves, and the official menstruum must 
necessarily be used. For this reason only 750 Cc. of 
the first percolate were considered as finished fluid- 
extract. When it is desired to make more of the same 
extract, 1000 gm. of the drug must be moistened with a 
sufficient quantity of reserve percolate No. 1. It is 
then packed in the percolator and the remainder of the 
No. 1 poured on. When this disappears beneath the 
surface it is followed by No. 2, then by No. 3, and 
finally by No. 4. As each of these reserves contains a 
gradually decreasing amount of extractive, they must 
not be allowed to mix before passing into the drug. 
The first 1000 Cc. of percolate is finished fluidextract. 
The second 1000 Cc. forms reserve No. 1, and the third 
1000 Cc. forms reserve No. 2, etc. It is evident that 
4000 Cc. of reserves will be insufficient to furnish 5000 
Cc. of percolate, and supply that held by the marc. 
Therefore, when the reserves are used up fresh men- 
struum must be added. This should always be the 
official menstruum, and in case the official menstruum 
is not the same throughout, only the initial menstruum 
should be used. For example, the initial menstruum for 



DEPOSITS IN FLUIDEXTRACTS 239 

1000 Gm. of cinchona is : Glycerin, 100 Cc. ; water, 100 
Cc. ; and alcohol, 800 Cc. The above operation may be 
repeated as often as more fluidextract is required. This 
method furnishes a fine product without the aid of heat 
or unnecessary waste of material. The objection usually 
raised is the expense of keeping the reserves, but this 
has been greatly exaggerated, as a very simple cal- 
culation will prove. 

Fractional Percolation. — This is the name applied by 
Prof. C. Lewis Diehl to a method for the manufacture 
of fluidextracts in which 1000 Gm. of drug are divided 
into three portions of 500 Gm., 325 Gm., and 175 Gm. 
each. The first 500 Gm. are moistened and percolated 
in the usual manner, until 1675 Cc. of percolate are 
obtained. The first 175 Cc. of percolate are put aside 
as reserve percolate. The next portion is used to moisten 
the 325 Gm. of drug. The remainder of the percolate is 
used as menstruum for the second portion of drug until 
975 Cc. of percolate are obtained. Of this, the first 
375 Cc. of percolate are reserved and the remainder, in 
the order in which received, is used to moisten and per- 
colate the third portion of drug until 5C0 Cc. of perco- 
late are obtained. These SCO Cc. are mixed with the 
two portions previously reserved, making 1000 Cc. of 
finished fluidextract. 

Deposits in Fluidextracts. — Deposits in fluidextracts 
are usually caused by light, air, changes in temperature, 
and the change which occurs in the alcoholic strength of 
the menstruum as percolation proceeds. The first por- 
tion contains a larger per cent, of moisture and soluble 
constituents, which, when mixed with the stronger 



240 FLUIDEXTRACTA. FLUIDEXTRACTS 

menstruum that follows, causes precipitation. The 
deposit consists chiefly of inert matter, of which the 
greater part usually forms during the first few weeks 
or months. The fluidextract should be decanted or 
filtered. 

Since fluidextracts are uniform in strength, each 
cubic centimeter representing one gram of drug, the 
most important point remaining is the consideration of 
the character and strength of the menstruum used. 
Accordingly they will be studied in the order of their 
alcoholic strengths excepting those which contain 
glycerin. These will be considered in a separate class. 
The parts of menstruum given are by volume. 

Pharmacopceial Fluidextracts Arranged Accord- 
ing to Their Alcoholic Strength, Together 
with the Percentage of Absolute Alcohol 
in Their Menstrua. 

Alcohol. Absolute Alcohol, 94.9 per cent. 
Fluidextr actum: 

Aromaticum, Aromatic Cubebse, Cubebs. 

Powder. Gelsemii, Yellow Jasmine. 

Capsici, Capsicum. Sabinae, Sabin. 

Cannabis Indicse, Indian Veratri, Veratrum. 

Hemp. Zingiberis, Ginger. 
Cimicif ugse, Black Cohosh. 

Alcohol, 4. Water, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 75.9 per cent. 



PHARMACOPCEIAL FLU1DEXTRACTS 241 

Fluidextractum: 

Belladonnae Radicis, Bella- Podophylli, Mandrake. 

donna Root. Rhei, Rhubarb. 

Eriodictyi, Yerba Santa. Scopolae, Scopola. 
Euonynii, Wahoo. Serpent ariae, Virginia 

Mezerei, Mezereum. Snake Root. 

Staphisagriae, Stavesacre. 

Alcohol, 3. Water, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 71 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Aconiti, Aconite. Leptandrae, Culver's Root. 

Buchu, Buchu. Matico, Matico. 

Calami, Calamus. Nucis Vomicae, Nux 

Eucalypti, Eucalyptus. Vomica. 

Grindeliae, Grindelia. Sumbul, Musk Root. 

Ipecacuanha?, Ipecac. Valerianae, Valerian. 
Xanthoxyli, Prickly Ash. 

Alcohol, 7. Water, 3. Absolute Alcohol, 66 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Calumbae, Calumba. 
Alcohol, 2. Water, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 63 per cent. 

Fluidextractum : 
Aurantii Amarae, Bitter Senega?, Senega, Snake 

Orange. Root. 

Colchici Seminis, Colchi- Stramonii, Stramonium. 

cum Seed. Viburni Opuli, Cramp- 

Hyoscyami, Henbane bark 

Viburni Prunifolii, Black Haw. 

Alcohol, 6.5. Water, 3.5. Absolute Alcohol, 61.7 per cent. 
16 



242 FLUIDEXTRACTA. FLUIDEXTRACTS 

Fluidextractum : 

Convallarise, Lily-of-the- Valley. 

Alcohol, 1. Water, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 48.9 per cent. 
(Diluted Alcohol). 

Fluidextractum: 

Berberidis, Oregon Snake Guaranse, Guarana. 

Root. Kramerise, Rhatany 

Chimaphila, Pipsissewa. Lappse, Burdock Root. 

Chiratse, Chirata. Phytolacca?, Poke Root. 

Cocse, Coca. Pilocarpi, Jaborandi. 

Cornii, Poison Hemlock. Quillajse, Soap Bark. 

Cypripedii, Lady's Slipper. Rubi, Rubris, Blackberry. 

Digitalis, Foxglove. Scutellariae, Skull Cap. 

Eupatorii, Boneset or Senna?, Senna. 

Thoroughwort. Spigelian, Pinkroot. 

Gentianse, Gentian. Stillingise, Queen's Root. 
Taraxaci, Dandelion. 

Alcohol, 2. Water, 3. Absolute Alcohol, 38 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Rhamni Purshianse, Cascara Sagrada. 

Alcohol, 5. Water, 8. Absolute Alcohol, 36.44 per cent. 
Fluidextractum: 

Frangulse, Buckthorn. 

Alcohol, 1. Water, 2. Absolute Alcohol, 31.5 per cent. 



PHARMACOPCEIAL FLUIDEXTRACTS 243 

Flu idextra ctum : 
Quassiae, Quassia. Sarsaparillse, Sarsaparilla. 
Alcohol, 1. Water, 3. Absolute Alcohol, 23.7 per cent. 
Fluidextr actum: 

Tritici, Couch Grass. 

Fluidextracts Coxtaixixg Glycerix. 

Alcohol, 8. Water, 1. Glycerin, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 
75.9 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Cinchona^, Cinchona. 

Alcohol, 6. Water, 3. Glycerin, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 
57 per cent. 

Fluidextr act urn: 

Apocyni, Canadian Hemp. Hydrastis, Golden Seal. 
Geranii, Cranesbill. Pareira?, Pareira, 

Alcohol, 5. Water, 2.5. Glycerin, 2.5. Absolute Alcohol, 
48.9 per cent. 

Flu idextr actum: 

Rhamni Purshianse Aromaticum, Aromatic Cascara 
Sagrada. 

Diluted Alcohol, 9. Glycerin, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 
44 per cent. 



244 FLUIDEXTRACTA. FLUIDEXTRACTS 

Fluidextr actum: 

Granati, Pomegranate. Rhois Glabrse, Rhus Glabra. 
Quercus, Oak Bark. Rosse, Red Rose. 

Sarsaparillse Compositum, Compound Sarsaparilla. 

Alcohol, 3. Water, 6. Glycerin, 1. Absolute Alcohol, 
28.5 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Hamamelidis Foliorum, Witch-hazel. 

Alcohol, 2. Water, 6. Glycerin, 2. Absolute Alcohol, 
18.8 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Pruni Virginians, Fluidextract of Wild Cherry. 

Alcohol, 2. Water, 5. Glycerin, 3. Absolute Alcohol, 
18.8 per cent. 

Fluidextractum : 

Uvse Ursi, Bearbeny. 

Alcohol, 2. Water, 5. Glycerin, 2.5. Ammonia Water, 
0.5. Absolute Alcohol, 18 per cent. 

Fluidextractum: 

Glycyrrhizse, Licorice. 
Acetic Acid, 10 per cent. 



EXPLANATORY NOTES 245 

Fluidextr actum: 

Lobelise, Lobelia. 
Sanguinarise, Blood Root. 
Scillse, Squill. 

EXPLANATORY NOTES. 

Fluidextractum Belladonnae Radicis. — This is assayed 
and standardized to contain 0.4 Gm. of mydriatic 
alkaloids in 100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Scopolise. — It is assayed and standard- 
ized to contain 0.5 Gm. of mydriatic alkaloids in 100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Aconiti. — It is standardized by volu- 
metric assay to contain 0.4 Gm. of aconitine in 100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Ipecacuanha. — This is standardized 
by volumetric assay to contain 1.5 Gm. of alkaloid in 
100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Nucis Vomicae. — This is standardized 
by volumetric assay to contain 1 Gm. of strychnine in 100 
Cc. of fluidextract. Five per cent, of acetic acid is added 
to the menstruum to aid the solution of the alkaloid. 

Fluidextractum Colchici Seminis. — This is standardized 
by gravimetric assay to contain 0.4 Gm. of colchicine in 
100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Hyoscyami. — It is standardized by 
volumetric assay to contain 0.075 Gm. of alkaloids in 
100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Senegae. — The menstruum contains 
3 per cent of solution of potassium hydroxide to prevent 
the gelatinization of pectinous compounds. 



246 FLUIDEXTRACTA. FLUIDEXTRACTS 

Fluidextractum Stramonii. — This is standardized to 
contain 0.25 Gm. of mydriatic alkaloids in ICO Cc. 

Fluidextractum Cocae. — It is standardized by volu- 
metric assay to contain 0.5 Gm. of ether-soluble alkaloids 
in ICO Cc. 

Fluidextractum Cornii. — Two per cent, of acetic acid is 
added to unite with the volatile alkaloid and form a more 
stable compound. It is standardized by gravimetric 
assay to contain 0.45 Gm. of coniine in 100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Guaranse. — It is standardized by gravi- 
metric assay to contain 3.5 Gm. of alkaloid in 1C0 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Pilocarpi. — 1+ is standardized by volu- 
metric assay to contain 0.4 Gm. of alkaloid in 100 Cc. 

Fluidextractum Sennse. — The drug is first exhausted 
with alcohol to remove the resins. These are discarded, 
as they produce a griping effect. 

Fluidextractum Taraxaci. — The menstruum contains 
5 per cent, of potassium hydroxide to neutralize the acids 
present in the drug, and to prevent precipitation. 

Fluidextractum Tritici. — The drug is exhausted with 
boiling water, and evaporated. The alcohol is then 
added, and the whole filtered to exclude albuminous 
matter. 

Fluidextractum Cinchonae. — This is standardized by 
gravimetric assay to contain 4 Gm. of anhydrous, ether- 
soluble alkaloids. 

Fluidextractum Hydrastis. — It is standardized by 
gravimetric assay to contain 2 Gm. of hydrastine in 100 
Cc. of extract. 

Fluidextractum Rhamni Purshianse Aromaticum. — The 
cascara is macerated with magnesium oxide and water 



EXPLANATORY NOTES 247 

for twelve hours, and then dried to render the bitter 
principle insoluble. 

Fluidextractum Sarsaparillae Compositum. — This con- 
tains sarsaparilla, licorice, sassafras, and mezereum. 

Fluidextractum Pruni Virginianae. — The alcohol is not 
strong enough to interfere with the action of the enzyme. 
(See Syrups, p. 215.) Percolation is continued to 10GO 
Cc. without evaporation, as heat would drive off the 
hydrocyanic formed. 

Fluidextractum Glycyrrhizae. — The licorice is exhausted 
with boiling w^ater, evaporated, and part of the inert 
albuminous matter precipitated with alcohol. The 
alcohol is distilled and finally adjusted to the strength 
of the above solvent. The ammonia is added to form a 
more soluble and a sweeter compound of glycyrrhizic 
acid. 

The National Formulary gives directions for the 
manufacture of thirty-eight fluidextracts, most of which 
are less frequently used than those of the Pharmacopeia. 
The bitterless fluidextract of cascara sagrada differs 
from the aromatic fluidextract of the Pharmacopeia in 
the use of lime instead of magnesium oxide to render the 
bitter principle insoluble. Further, the oils of coriander 
and anise are used in the place of compound spirits of 
orange and licorice. 



CHAPTEE XXIX. 

EXTRACTA. EXTRACTS. 

Extracts are obtained by evaporating a solution of 
the medicinal constituents of drugs to dryness, or to a 
pilular consistency. The method of obtaining the solu- 
tion is practically the same as that used in the manu- 
facture of extracts, infusions, and decoctions. They 
are sometimes designated as alcoholic, hydro-alcoholic, 
aqueous, or acetic, according to the solvent used. The 
evaporation should be conducted with great care, as 
heat is prone to decompose organic matter. For many 
extracts the Pharmacopoeia directs that the temperature 
shall not exceed 50° C. The flat-bottomed evaporating 
dish or a dinner plate will be found useful in the manu- 
facture of extracts. Evaporation will be hastened by 
frequent stirring, especially when the liquid is becoming 
thick. The active constituents of a drug generally form 
but a small percentage of its bulk, and when extracted 
are associated with a large quantity of inert extractive. 
Therefore, the menstruum employed should be one 
capable of extracting the active constituents together 
with the least amount of inert matter. In all cases the 
standard menstruum should be used. Apothem is a 
substance formed when the aqueous solution of a drug 
is subjected to heat for some time. If the clear solution 
of a drug, like opium, be evaporated to dryness, a large 



EXTRACTA. EXTRACTS 249 

part of it becomes insoluble. If this in turn be removed 
by filtration, and the clear filtrate be again evaporated 
to dryness, an additional quantity is formed. This 
may be repeated until the extractive matter is nearly 
all removed. However, when precipitation occurs, or 
insoluble matter separates from a solution, it invariably 
holds a small quantity of the active constituent. Apo- 
them is practically insoluble in cold water, sparingly 
soluble in boiling water, partially so»luble in alcohol, and 
readily soluble in alkalies. 

Variation in strength is greater in extracts than in any 
other class of preparations. This is due to variation in 
the amount of extractive in the drug, and also in the 
degree of concentration. The latter may be in part due 
to the interpretation given to the pharmacopceial direc- 
tions to evaporate to a pilular consistency. To meet this 
requirement, the extract should permit rolling into pill 
form, and jet retain its shape. Changes in tempera- 
ture render it difficult to obtain a product always capable 
of conforming to this requirement. Those on the market 
vary from dry to a semifluid condition. 

Extracts should be carefully preserved in v:ell-closed 
retainers, as they frequently lose or absorb moisture, 
which is an additional source of variation. Glycerin is 
added to a few extracts to preserve them in a moist 
condition. Wherever practicable they are made in 
powdered form, which is a decided advantage in 
dispensing. The present Pharmacopeia endeavors to 
adjust the strength of more than one-half of the official 
extracts, either by assay or by making the finished 
product bear a definite relation to the drug. In the 



250 



EXTRACT A. EXTRACTS 



latter case the extract is evaporated to dryness, and 
powdered licorice is added to bring it to the desired 
weight. Licorice is better than sugar of milk to keep 
the extract in a pulverulent condition in a warm or 
damp atmosphere. 

The following tabulation will be found convenient for 
study and comparison. 



Table of Extracts. 



Official and common 
name. 


Menstruum. 


8 % 

B ® 

If 

^ ft 


a 
o 

.2 'S 

co pi 

>> o 


2 


"«3 £ 

o a 

•a S 

< 


Extractum : 












Aloes 


Boiling Water 


100 


Dry 


50.0 




Belladonna? Foliorum, 


J Alcohol, 2 vols. 
\ Water, 1 vol. 


50 


Pilular 




1.4 


Belladonna Leaves 






Cannabis Indies, Indian 












Hemp 


Alcohol 


100 


Pilular 


14.0 




Cimicifugse, Black Cohosh 


Fluidextract (Alcohol) 


70 


Dry 


25.0 




Colchici Cormi, Colchicum 
Corm 


f Acetic Acid, 35 
\ Water, 150 


80 


Pilular 




1.4 


Colocynthidis, Colocynth 


Oil. Alcohol 


100 


Dry 


40.0 




Colocynthidis Comp., 












Comp. Extr. Colocynth 


See notes 


120 


Dry 






Digitalis, Foxglove 


Fluidextract: dil. alco. 


50 


Pilular 


25.0 




Ergots, Ergot 


f Alcohol, 10 
\ Water, 4 
f Fluidextract 


50 


Soft 


12.5 




Euonymi, Wahoo 


1 Alcohol, 8 
( Water, 2 


70 


Dry 


25.0 




Gentians, Gentian 


Water 


100 


Pilular 


30.0 




Glycyrrhizae, Licorice 






Rolls 






Glycyrrhizse, Purum 


Ammoniated Water 


100 


Pilular 


25.0 




Hematoxyli, Logwood 


Water, 
f Fluidextract 


100 


Dry 


8.0 




Hyoscyami, Henbane 


< Alcohol, 2 
( Water, 1 


50 


Pilular 




0.3 


Kramerise, Rhatany 


Water 


70 


Dry 


8.0 




Leptandris, Culver's 
Root 


( Fluidextract 
\ Alcohol, 3 
I Water, 1 


70 


Dry 


25.0 





EXPLAXATOJRY XOTES 



251 



Table of Extracts. 



Official and common 
name. 



Malti, Malt 

Nucis Vomica?, Nux 

Vomica 
Opii, Opium 
Physostigmatis, Calabar 

Bean 
Quassia?, Quassia 
Rhamni Purshiana?, 

Cascara Sagrada 

Rhei, Rhubarb 



Scopolae, Scopola 

Stramonii, Thornapple 

Sumbul, Musk root 
Taraxaci, Dandelion 



Menstruum. 



Water 

( Acetic Acid, 5 
\ Water, 13 
Water 

Alcohol 
Water 

("Alcohol, 1 
\ Water, 7 

{Fluidextract 
Alcohol, 4 
Water, 1 
{Fluidextract 
Alcohol, 4 
Water, 1 
( Fluidextract 
\ Alcohol, 2 
(Water, 1 

{Fluidextract 
Alcohol, 3 
Water, 1 
f Alcohol, 1 
\ Water, 7 



hi 

11 

S s 


S3 
"3 ."£ 

.2 ^ 

03 C 

>> c 


2 
"3 


55 


Thick 
honey 


60.0 


100 


Dry 




100 


Dry 




50 


Dry 




100 


Dry 


10.0 


70 


Dry 


25.0 


50 


Pilular 


30.0 


50 


Pilular 




50 


Pilular 




70 


Pilular 




100 


Pilular 


14.0 



2 § 



5.0 
20.0 

2.0 



2.0 



1.0 



EXPLANATORY NOTES. 

Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum. — This contains 
extract of colocynth, 16 Gm.; purified aloes, 50 Gin; 
cardamom, 6 Gm.; resin scammony, 14 Gm., and soap, 
14 Gm. The Pharmacopoeia directs that the aloes be 
heated on a water bath until melted, before adding the 
other ingredients. Purified aloes will not melt over a 
water bath. A better method is to mix all the ingredients 
except the cardamom, add 10 Cc. of alcohol, and heat at 



252 EXTRACT A. EXTRACTS 

a temperature not exceeding 120°, until a homogeneous 
mass is secured. Then incorporate the cardamom. 

Extractum Ergot se. — In the manufacture of this extract 
the percolate is concentrated and mixed with water and 
hydrochloric acid to precipitate inert matter. Upon 
filtering, the acid is neutralized with sodium carbonate. 
The extract should be completely soluble in water. 

Extractum GlycyrrhizaB Purum. — The licorice is 
extracted with water containing ammonia. The latter 
is added to form the soluble, sweet ammoniated glycyr- 
rhizin. The pure extract is completely soluble, while 
the commercial extract frequently contains 40 per cent, 
of insoluble matter. 

Extractum Nucis Vomicae. — This is prepared by 
extracting the drug with acetic acid, which forms the 
soluble acetate of strychnine, but does not dissolve the 
oil. The percolate is concentrated and mixed with 
three and one-third times its volume of alcohol to pre- 
cipitate the albuminous matter. The solution is then 
evaporated and the residue standardized to contain 5 
per cent, of strychnine. 

Extractum Opii. — This is an aqueous extract, standard- 
ized to contain 20 per cent, of morphine. 

The National Formulary furnishes directions for the 
manufacture of two extracts, viz., Extractum Ferri 
Pomatum, or ferrated extract of apples, and Extractum 
Glycyrrhizse Depuratum, or the purified extract of 
licorice. The latter is only an aqueous extract of com- 
mercial stick licorice, and should not be confused with 
the pharmacopceial pure extract which is prepared from 
the root. 



EXPLAXATORY XOTES 253 

Inspissated juices are used to some extent, but are not 
at present recognized by the United States Pharma- 
copoeia. They are prepared by bruising the fresh plants 
and expressing the juice, gradually heating to 55° C, 
and straining. This separates the chlorophyl. The 
filtrate is first heated to 95° C. and filtered, thereby 
coagulating and removing the albumin. Afterward 
evaporate to a soft extract. By returning the chlorophyl 
after the removal of the albumin, the extract receives a 
green color, but is reduced in strength. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

oleoresins and resins. 
oleoresins. oleoresins. 

The oleoresins of the Pharmacopoeia should not be 
confused with such natural oleoresins as copaiba, 
turpentine, etc., which are natural exudations and 
consist of resins and volatile oils. Oleoresins are oily 
liquids principally composed of resins with fixed or 
volatile oils, and small quantities of other constituents 
soluble in the menstruum used. They are more closely 
related to extracts, and have been called ethereal extracts, 
because formerly made by percolating the drug with 
ether and afterward removing by distillation or evapor- 
ation. At present they are made in the same manner, 
with the use of acetone as a menstruum for all except 
cubebs, which is extracted with alcohol. Since acetone 
is a volatile and inflammable liquid, care should be exer- 
cised to prevent evaporation and fire. There are six 
official oleoresins. 

Oleoresina Aspidii. — Oleoresin of Male Fern. — The 
root yields about 15 per cent. As aspidium deteriorates 
rapidly, only fresh roots having a green color should 
be used. The oleoresin is a greenish black, oily liquid, 
which usually deposits a granular crystalline substance 



RESIN.E. resins 255 

consisting principally of felicic acid, which should be 
mixed thoroughly with the liquid before using. 

Oleoresina Capsici. — Oleoresin of Red Pepper. — The 
yield is from 5 to 8 per cent. It is a light brownish 
red liquid which frequently deposits fatty matter, which 
should be rejected. 

Oleoresina CubebaB. — Oleoresin of Cubebs. — The yield 
is about 20 per cent. It is of a brownish green color, 
and upon standing deposits a waxy, crystalline mass 
largely consisting of cubebin. Only the liquid portion 
should be used. 

Oleoresina Lupulini. — Oleoresin of Lupulin. — The 
yield is about 60 per cent., and is a reddish brown, soft 
extract. 

Oleoresina Piperis. — Oleoresin of Black Pepper. — The 
yield is about 6 per cent. This is a thick, black liquid, 
depositing crystals of piperin. These crystals should be 
removed by straining, and only the liquid portion used. 

Oleoresina Zingiberis. — Oleoresin of Ginger. — The 
yield is about 5 to 8 per cent., and is a light reddish 
liquid. 

RESINJE. RESINS. 

The official resins are either in solid or powdered 
form, and are soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water. 
All except rosin are prepared by making a strong alco- 
holic tincture and pouring it slowly into acidulated 
water, which precipitates the resin comparatively free 
from other inert matter. The precipitate is collected on 
a strainer, washed, and dried. 



256 OLEORESINS AND RESINS 

Resina. — Rosin. — This is a by-product left from the 
distillation of oil of turpentine. 

Resina Jalap ae. — Resin of Jalap. — The yield is from 
6 to 12 per cent., and occurs in yellow or brownish 
masses or fragments. It is very apt to be impure, 
hence should be tested according to methods furnished 
in the United States Pharmacopeia. 

Resina Podophylli. — Resin of Podophyllin, Mandrake 
or May Apple. — This yield is 4 per cent., and occurs in 
grayish white or greenish yellow amorphous powder. 

Resina Scammonii. — Resin of Scammony. — It is pre- 
pared from the gum-resin scammony, and occurs in 
yellowish brown or brownish yellow fragments or 
masses. 

Balsams. — Balsams are closely related to resins. 
They contain resins, volatile oil, and benzoic or cinna- 
mic acid, or both. The Pharmacopoeia recognizes two, 
viz., Balsamum Peruvianum and Balsamum Toluta- 
num. Both of these balsams contain cinnamic and 
benzoic acids. Benzoin is a balsamic resin containing 
benzoic acid. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

COLLODIA. COLLODIONS. 

The Pharmacopoeia furnishes formulas for the manu- 
facture of four collodions, two of which are used as 
vehicles for medication. Collodion is a solution of 
pyroxylin or soluble guncotton in a mixture of alcohol, 
one volume, and ether, three volumes. Pyroxylin is 
insoluble in either of the above solvents when used 
alone, but dissolves readily in the mixture, after allowing 
it to remain for fifteen minutes in the ether before adding 
the alcohol. It is also soluble in acetone, which, with the 
addition of a little camphor, has been recommended as 
a solvent for the official collodion. Collodion leaves a 
thin, waterproof membrane when painted over a sur- 
face and the solvent allowed to evaporate. The official 
collodion should be used when a contractile membrane 
is desired. If a flexible membrane be desired, the follow- 
ing should be employed. 

Collodium Flexile. — Flexible Collodion. — This is pre- 
pared by adding Canada turpentine and castor oil to 
collodion. 

The medicinal collodions are prepared by dissolving 
the medicinal substance directly in one of the above 
vehicles, or by adding the substance previously dis- 
solved in alcohol, ether, or chloroform. Pharmacopceial 
medicinal collodions are: 
17 



258 COLLODIA. COLLODIONS 

Collodium Cantharidatum. — Cantharidal Collodion. — 
This may be considered as 60 per cent, strong, since 100 
Gm. contain the cantharidin from CO Gm. of cantharides. 
It is prepared by extracting with chloroform, evapo- 
rating and dissolving the residue in flexible collodion. 

Collodium Stypticum. — Styptic Collodion. — This con- 
tains 20 Gm. of tannic acid in ICO Cc. of collodion. 

The National Formulary furnishes directions for the 
preparation of four collodions, viz., Collodium Iodatum, 
5 per cent.; Collodium Iodoformatum, 5 per cent.; 
Collodium Tiglii, 10 per cent.; Collodium Salicylatum 
Compositum. Corn collodion contains 11 per cent, 
salicylic acid, and 2 per cent, extract of cannabis indica. 
Dr. E. H. Squibb recommends the use of 10 per cent, 
of fluidextract of cannabis indica instead of the extract, 
and also the use of the contractile collodion in place of 
the flexible collodion. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

GLYCERITA. GLYCERITES. 

With a single exception, the glycerites of the Phar- 
macopoeia are solutions of medicinal substances in 
glycerin. One of them is a plastic mass. They are 
permanent preparations miscible with water and 
alcohol. 

Glyceritum Acidi Tannici. — Glycerite of Tannic Acid. — 
This forms a convenient solution for prescription pur- 
poses. Avoid contact with metallic vessels. 

Glyceritum Amyli. — Glycerite of Starch. — This con- 
tains about 20 per cent, of starch in the form of a thick 
jelly. The powdered starch should be uniformly mixed 
with the water and added to the glycerin previously 
heated to 140° C. This temperature is necessary to 
burst the starch cells and render them soluble. It is 
maintained until a translucent jelly is formed, stirring 
constantly during the process. A sand or air bath 
should be used, as direct heat is liable to scorch the 
starch. 

Glyceritum Boroglycerini. — Glycerite of Boroglycerin. — 
This contains 50 per cent, of glyceryl borate prepared 
by heating thirty-one parts of boric acid with forty-six 
parts of glycerin, until the water is drawn off and the 
mixture is reduced to fifty parts. The reaction is as 
follows : 

C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 + H BO 3 = C 3 H 5 B0 3 + 3H 2 0. 

Glycerin, Boric acid. Glyceryl borate. Water. 



2(30 GLYCERITA. GLYCERITES 

Glyceritum Ferri, Quininae et Strychninse Phosphatum. — 

Glycerite of the Phosphates of Iron, Quinine, and Strych- 
nine. — 100 Cc. of the glycerite contains 8 Gm. of solu- 
ble ferric phosphate, 10.4 Gm. of quinine, and 80 mg. 
of strychnine dissolved in 20 Cc. of phosphoric acid. 
This glycerite is used for the extemporaneous manu- 
facture of the syrup. 

Glyceritum Hydrastis. — Glycerite of Hydrastis. — This 
is of the same strength as the fluidextract. It is prepared 
by exhausting the drug with alcohol, evaporating the 
alcohol and pouring the thick residue into cold water, 
which precipitates the greater part of the berberine and 
inert matter. Allow it to stand twenty-four hours and 
filter. Add the required amount of water and glycerin. 

Glyceritum Phenolis. — Glycerite of Phenol. Glycerite 
of Carbolic Acid. — It contains 20 per cent, by volume of 
liquefied phenol, equivalent to about 17 Gm. of absolute 
or 18 Gm. of U. S. P. phenol in each 100 Cc. 

In the National Formulary five glycerites are con- 
sidered, of which but two need here be mentioned. 

Glyceritum Bismuthi. — Glycerite of Bismuth. — This is 
prepared by dissolving bismuth subnitrate in nitric acid. 

Reaction .- 1 
Bi(OH) 2 N0 3 + 2HNO A = Bi(NO,) 3 + 2H 2 0. 

Bismuthi subnitrate. Nitric acid. Bismuthi trinitrate. Water. 

Tartaric acid is added to the solution, and then sodium 
bicarbonate, when the insoluble bismuth tartrate is 
precipitated. 

1 These reactions are only approximate, as bismuth also forms 
BiO(N0 3 ) in water. 



GLYCERITUM GUAIACI 261 



Reaction 



2Bi(N0 3 ) 3 + 3H 2 C,H 4 6 + 6NaHC0 3 = Bi 2 (C 4 H 4 O s ) 3 + 

Bismuth nitrate. Tartaric acid. Sodium bicarbonate. Bismuth tartrate. 

6NaNO, + 6C0 2 + 6H 2 0. 

Sodium Carbon Water, 

nitrate. dioxide. 

The precipitate, after washing, is dissolved in a solu- 
tion of sodium tartrate formed from tartaric acid and 
sodium bicarbonate. 

Reaction : 
H 2 C 4 H 4 0„ + 2NaHC0 3 = Na 2 C 4 H 4 6 + 2C0 2 + 2H 2 

Tartaric acid. Sodium Sodium tartrate. Carbon Water, 

bicarbonate. dioxide. 

The product is doubtless a double tartrate. 

Glycerite of bismuth is used in the preparation of 
elixir of bismuth, and also in the solution of bismuth. 

Glyceritum Guaiaci. — Glycerite of Guaiac. — Here the 
solution of potassium hydroxide unites with the resin to 
form a compound that will be soluble in water and 
glycerin. The remaining glycerites do not require 
special comment. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

LINIMENTS AND OLEATES. 
LINIMENTA. LINIMENTS. 

Liniments are fluid or semifluid preparations to be 
applied externally and followed by friction. The 
medicinal substance is either in solution, or is mixed 
with a saponaceous, alcoholic, hydro-alcoholic, or oily 
vehicle. There are eight pharmacopceial liniments, a 
number of which are simple mixtures. 

Linimentum Ammoniae. — Ammonia Liniment. Vola- 
tile Liniment. — The cotton-seed oil is not easily saponi- 
fied by the ammonia, and would readily separate on 
standing; but the ammonia easily unites with the oleic 
acid to form a soap, which emulsifies the oil on shaking. 
Alcohol aids both saponification and absorption, and 
also prevents saponaceous liniments from thickening. 

In the manufacture of soap liniment only the purest 
castile soap should be used. The commercial powdered 
soap is largely prepared from animal fats, which contain 
a considerable quantity of palmitates or stearates. This 
forms a soap only sparingly soluble in the hydro-alco- 
holic solvent used. Hence, it gradually deposits when 
made into a liniment. 



OLEATA. OLEATES 263 

There are eight National Formulary liniments, of 
which two only are here mentioned. 

Linimentum Ammonii Iodidi. — Liniment of the Iodide 
of Ammonia. — The ammonia iodide is prepared by 
adding ammonia water to an alcoholic solution of 
iodine. When iodine and ammonia react, there is always 
a probability of the formation of the iodide of nitrogen 
(N 2 H 3 I 3 ). This separates as a brown deposit, which, 
when dry, is very explosive. For this reason such residue 
should be decomposed while it is moist, by the addition 
of nitric acid. 

Linimentum Terebinthinae. — Liniment of Turpentine. 
St. John Long's Liniment. Stokes' Liniment. — This is 
practically an egg emulsion of turpentine, containing 
acetic acid. 

OLEATA. OLEATES. 

Oleates are chemical combinations of oleic acid with 
an organic or inorganic base. Like liniments, they are 
intended for external application. Normal oleates are 
those in which there is just sufficient acid to unite with 
the base. In consistency they vary from soft ointment- 
like substances to dry solids. Some of the official 
oleates are solutions of normal oleates in oleic acid, or 
in oils. The strengths of oleates are usually expressed 
in percentage, which, in the case of inorganic oleates, 
refers to the amount of metallic oxide present. In organic 
oleates it refers to the amount of alkaloids present. The 
following table shows the relative strengths of normal 
and official oleates: 



264 



LINIMENTS AND OLEATES 



Table of Normal and Official Oleates. 



Oleate. 


.5 » 
J "o 

a T3 

2 a 


.a 1 

§ "si 

0( o 


Base. 


Oleate of Aconitine, N. F. 


69.6 


2.0 


Aconitine 


Oleate of Atropine, U. S. P. 


56.6 


2.0 


Atropine 


Oleate of Cocaine, U. S. P. 


51.6 


5.0 


Cocaine 


Oleate of Morphine 


50.3 




Morphine 


Oleate of Quinine, U. S. P. 


53.46 


25.0 


Quinine 


Oleate of Strychnine, 


54.22 




Strychnine 


Oleate of Veratrine, U. S. P. 




2.0 


Veratrine 


Oleate of Bismuth 


22.0 




Bismuth 


Oleate of Copper 


12.7 




Cupric Oxide 


Oleate of Iron 


8.8 




Ferric Oxide Anhydrous 


Oleate of Lead 


28.23 


28.28 


Lead Oxide 


(Lead Plaster, U. S. P.) 








Oleate of Mercury, U. S. P. 


28.4 


25.0 


Mercuric Oxide 


Oleate of Zinc, N. F. 


12.9 


12.9 


Zinc Oxide 



Strychnine oleates should be made 2 per cent, strong, 
and morphine 5 per cent, strong, unless otherwise 
ordered. 

Preparation. — Alkaloidal oleates are prepared by trit- 
urating the alkaloid with a little alcohol in a mortar 
until smooth, then adding about one-tenth of the acid 
and gently warming the mortar until the alcohol is 
evaporated. The remainder of the acid is then added 
and warmed until it is dissolved. Some prefer to omit 
the alcohol and to rub the alkaloid with a small quan- 
tity of the acid until smooth. Finally, the remainder of 
the acid is added. The Pharmacopoeia uses the first 
method for atropine, cocaine, and veratrine, with olive 
oil as part of the diluent, and the second method for 
quinine. Metallic oleates may be prepared by dissolving 
the oxide in oleic acid, first rubbing them to a smooth 



OLEATA. OLEATES 265 

creamy mixture with a little alcohol or water. The 
mixture should be then kept at a temperature not 
exceeding 50° C. until dissolved. The reaction is very 
slow, and the substance requires frequent stirring. A 
high temperature cannot be employed, as oleates are 
easily decomposed. A better method is to prepare them 
by double decomposition, using a solution of pure 
castile soap and some soluble salt of the desired metal. 
The acetates are commonly preferred. The metallic 
oleate is precipitated, and washed several times with hot 
water to free it from the soluble salt. The product is not 
a true oleate, but is an oleopalmitate, because the castile 
soap contains some palmitic acid. A somewhat purer 
oleate may be obtained by preparing the sodium oleate 
from oleic acid and sodium hydroxide. The Pharma- 
copoeia does not require that oleic acid shall be free from 
the higher fatty acids, but it is important that the acid 
used shall meet the requirements of the Pharmacopoeia. 
The Pharmacopoeia directs to prepare mercuric oleate 
from the oxide. If it be prepared from the salt, the 
precipitate must be washed in cold water or at most 
with only warm water, as it is easily decomposed by 
heat. Mercuric oleate should be diluted only when 
wanted, as the dilute oleate decomposes more easily. 

Oleates are frequently mixed with fats like lard, 
lanolin, or petrolatum to form ointments. When the 
strength is given, it should express the percentage of 
oleate present in the ointment, and not the percentage of 
alkaloid or metallic oxide present. 

Stearates are best prepared by double decomposition 
like the oleates, using sodium or potassium stearate 
instead of oleate. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

OINTMENTS AND CERATES. 

Some pharmacopoeias make no distinction between 
these two classes of preparations, but regard them both 
as ointments. The fatty constituents used as vehicles 
and the methods of manufacture are practically the 
same. The only ground for separation is the difference 
in the melting point. 

Unguenta. — Ointments are soft fatty solids intended 
for application to the skin by inunction. They melt or 
gradually become liquid at the temperature of the body. 

Cerata. — Cerates are firmer than ointments, and 
while they soften at the temperature of the body, they 
do not become liquid. 

VEHICLES FOR OINTMENTS AND CERATES. 

Adeps. — Lard. — Lard is one of the most important 
vehicles, but quickly becomes rancid on exposure to the 
air of a warm room. The change is more rapid when it 
contains water. Lard should be rendered during the 
winter or early spring. For many years the writer has 
habitually rendered during each winter a quantity 
sufficient for the following year. Only the firm leaf 



VEHICLES FOR OINTMENTS AND CERATES 267 

lard should be selected, washed, dried, and the outer 
membrane and bloody portions removed. It is then 
passed through a food chopper to break up the cells, and 
heated over a water bath in a deep vessel at a tempera- 
ture not exceeding 60° C. until clear. A portion of the 
fat is then strained, poured into cans, and sealed while 
hot. Or it may be allowed to cool and be then carefully 
covered with a layer of paraffin. The remainder of the 
lard may be benzoinated by adding two parts of benzoin 
for each 100 parts of lard and the heat continued for 
two hours. Strain and seal as above. This method 
furnishes a supply of plain and benzoinated lard that 
remains perfect until used, and also avoids the necessity 
of preparing it during warm weather. If for any pur- 
pose lard is melted during warm weather, it should be 
artificially cooled with continued stirring. Otherwise 
the lard will become granular, due to the separation of 
the lard oil from the higher melting-point fats. The 
preparation should be as free from moisture as possible, 
therefore some dehydrating agents, such as calcium 
chloride, are sometimes added to the lard while it is 
rendering. 

Adeps Lanse Anhydrous. — Wool Fat. — Wool fat, melt- 
ing point 40° C, is very tenacious, and when cold will 
not readily assimilate water, but when melted may be 
readily mixed with three times its weight of that liquid. 

Adeps Lanse Hydrosus. — Hydrous Wool Fat. Lanolin. 
— This contains 30 per cent, of water, and is capable 
of taking up twice its own weight. This fact makes 
it especially valuable in the manufacture of ointments 
containing water or glycerin. It does not easily become 



268 OINTMENTS AND CERATES 

rancid. Its tenacious quality is an objection for some 
purposes, but the objection may be partially overcome 
by the addition of a little petrolatum. 

Petrolatum. — Petrolatum. — Its melting point should 
be between 45° C. and 48° C. Because of its stable 
character it is a favorite vehicle, but because it does not 
easily mix with water and is not readily absorbed it is 
not useful for certain ointments. 

Oils, both animal and vegetable, are frequently 
combined with higher melting-point fats and used as 
vehicles. The following substances are used principally 
to raise the melting point of ointments and cerates. 

Resina. — Calophony or Rosin. — Melting point, above 
1C0° C. This substance is used only in cerates. When 
mixed with soft fats it increases the melting point and 
becomes sticky or adhesive. 

Cera.— Beeswax.— Melting point, 62° C. to 65° C. 
Beeswax is used to increase the melting point, especially 
in cerates. White wax soon becomes rancid, and should 
be used only when the color of yellow wax is objection- 
able. 

Parafiinum. — Paraffin. — Melting point, 51.6° C. to 
57.2° C. 

Cetaceum. — Spermaceti. — Melting point, 42° C. to 
50° C. It becomes yellow and rancid on long exposure 
to the air. 

Sevum Praeparatum. — Suet. — Melting point, 45° C. 
to 50° C. It becomes rancid on exposure to air. 

Many attempts have been made to prepare a vehicle 
less objectionable than fats for external application, and 
one that will prove a good substitute for them. Glyce- 



VEHICLES FOR OINTMENTS AND CERATES 269 

rite of starch has been used to some extent. It is not 
easily decomposed and is readily removed by washing. 
Dr. Unna gives a formula for casein ointments which 
may be used as a vehicle, but it is practically a petro- 
latum emulsion containing, besides casein and petro- 
latum, glycerin, phenol, and zinc oxide. In the selection 
of a vehicle, the therapeutic results to be obtained should 
be considered, as shown by the following therapeutic 
classification of Prof. Halberg. 

Epidermatic. — Epidermic or non-absorbent vehicles 
are used when the action is to be purely external, as in 
the case of antiseptics, germicides, protectives, counter- 
irritants, and astringents. For such ointments petro- 
latum is the best vehicle. 

Endermatic. — Endermic nutritive or absorbent vehicles 
are used when the medicinal substance is to be absorbed 
by the skin, thus producing a local effect, as anodynes, 
alteratives, irritants, resolvents, sedatives, and stimu- 
lants. For such ointments pure lard or cacao butter 
should be used. 

Diadermatic Vehicles. — Systemic or constitutional 
effects are produced by substances that pass through 
the skin and enter the circulation. When such an effect 
is desired hydrated wool fat is doubtless the best vehicle. 
Various intermediate effects may be obtained by a 
combination of the above vehicles. 

Preparation of Ointments and Cerates. — With the excep- 
tion of nitrate of mercury ointment these preparations 
are mechanical mixtures made by trituration or stirring, 
either with or without heat. If the vehicle be too hard to 
mix easily with a spatula or pestle, it should be softened 



270 OINTMENTS AND CERATES 

or melted. Apply the heat as sparingly as possible. 
When mixing substances having different melting points, 
the substance having the highest melting point should 
be melted first. Then the one having the next highest 
should be added, and this one liquefied before adding the 
next. If this order be not observed, the addition of the 
lower melting point substance will cause part of the 
higher one to solidify before they have become mixed, 
thus producing a lumpy vehicle. The melting point of 
the mixture is between the highest and lowest melting 
points, but cannot be calculated from the proportion 
used. The mixture should be stirred until it stiffens, 
especially when oils are mixed with wax or spermaceti. 
Otherwise the higher melting point substance will con- 
geal first, thus producing a granular mixture. Long- 
continued stirring yields a whiter and softer product, 
but it is more apt to become rancid through the admix- 
ture of air. When preparing ointments without heat, 
small quantities are more conveniently made on an 
ointment slab, using a broad spatula. When much 
liquid is to be incorporated it is better done in a mortar. 
Dry substances, with few exceptions, should be 
reduced to fine powder and thoroughly mixed with a 
small quantity of the vehicle before adding the remain- 
der. If the powder be bulky, or a large amount is to be 
incorporated, it is better to triturate with a little oil or 
with some of the melted vehicle, as in the method for 
the manufacture of the pharmacopceial ointment of 
zinc oxide. When a substance is gritty, like yellow 
mercuric oxide, some prefer to levigate it with a little 
water, as in the pharmacopceial process; the author 



VEHICLES FOR OINTMENTS AND CERATES 271 

prefers to levigate with alcohol. When perfectly 
smooth, but before the alcohol commences to evapo- 
rate around the edges, add a little of the vehicle and rub 
or triturate until the alcohol evaporates. A few sub- 
stances like opium should be rubbed to a smooth paste 
with water before mixing with the vehicle. Very 
soluble substances like potassium iodide may be dis- 
solved in a little water and then incorporated. With 
less soluble substances there is danger that the water 
will evaporate and the substance crystallize, thus making 
a gritty product which is unpardonable in an ointment. 

Extracts should be softened with a little water, or 
diluted with alcohol. Iodine should be dissolved in a 
little water with the aid of potassium iodide. Alka- 
loidal salts when in small quantities should be dissolved 
in water, but if in large quantities they should be 
treated like insoluble powders. Free alkaloids should 
be triturated in a warm mortar with a little oleic acid, 
which converts most of the alkaloid into an oleate. 
The oleate is more readily absorbed. Substances which 
are soluble in oils or fats, like phenol, camphor, etc., 
should be dissolved in part of the melted vehicle. Care 
should be taken not to drive off substances that are 
especially volatile. Small quantities of liquids like water 
or glycerin may be mixed with lard, but in most cases 
it is advisable to use a little lanolin in place of part of 
the vehicle. This prevents the liquid from separating. 

Horn or hard rubber spatulas should be used in con- 
tact with substances which readily act upon steel, but 
substances having only a slight action upon steel when 
moist do not attack it when mixed with oil or fat. When 



272 OINTMENTS AND CERATES 

necessary, mortars should be warmed by placing in warm 
water or by burning a little alcohol in them. Never heat 
over a direct flame, as they are easily broken. A slab 
may be warmed by burning alcohol upon it. 

Preservation. — When possible, ointments and cerates 
should be freshly prepared, as they either become rancid 
or separate upon standing. Those that must be kept 
in stock should be prepared in small quantities and 
placed in amber or opaque glass containers, closely 
covered and kept in a cool dry place. Thoroughly 
cleanse the containers, when empty, with soap and hot 
water before using again. Earthenware jars should not 
be used, as the glazing quickly checks and fills with fat. 
This becomes rancid and is not easily removed. When 
made in large quantities they should be placed in 
small containers and sealed, or covered with melted 
paraffin, to prevent exposure to the air. 

Dispensing. — Never dispense a rancid or granular 
ointment or cerate. See that they are perfectly homo- 
geneous and free from gritty particles. Dispense stiff 
ointments and cerates in amber or opaque jars only. 
Use collapsible tubes for those which are not too hard 
to be pressed through the opening. Ointments will 
keep longer in collapsible tubes than in any other way, 
as they are completely protected from the air. The 
tubes may be easily filled by placing the ointment on 
glazed paper, and rolling it so that it may be inserted 
clear to the bottom of the tube. Then by drawing the 
paper out between the fingers the ointment will remain 
in the tube. Should the tubes be compressed or bent, 
they may be straightened by introducing a pencil and 



SPECIAL COMMENTS 273 

rolling them on a table or other smooth surface. The 
labels for tubes should be printed on paper sufficiently 
long to overlap when pasted around the top of the tube. 
Greasy jars or utensils may be cleaned with sawdust or 
soft dampened paper, then washed with soap and water. 
The odor of iodoform or other noxious odors may be 
removed from both utensils and hands by rubbing 
freely with linseed meal. 



SPECIAL COMMENTS. 

Unguentum Aquae Rosae. — Ointment of Rose Water. — 
In this preparation it is important that the melted fat 
should be cooled to about 40° C. before the rose water 
solution of sodium borate is added. The solution should 
be previously warmed to the same temperature. This 
will insure a uniform creamy mixture. 

Unguentum Hydrargyri. — Ointment of Mercury. — 
Oleate of mercury is used in the manufacture of mer- 
curial ointment. Its office is to aid in the emulsification 
of the mercury. 

Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis. — Citrine Ointment. — 
The mercury is dissolved in part of the nitric acid, 
forming, with the aid of heat, mercuric nitrate. The 
remainder of the acid is heated with the lard to form 
elaidin, a solid substance formed by the oxidation of the 
liquid olein which is present in non-drying fats and oils. 
If the heat be not continued long enough, the reaction 
between the lard and acid will not be complete; but if it 
be heated at too high a temperature the ointment will 
18 



274 OINTMENTS AND CERATES 

be brown. It should be of a light yellow or citrine 
color. 

Unguentum Picis Liquidae. — Ointment of Tar. — The 
tar should be homogeneous, and should not be added to 
the mixture until it begins to congeal. 

Unguentum Potassii Iodidi. — Ointment of Potassium 
Iodide. — The potassium carbonate is added to prevent 
the liberation of free iodine said to be due to the action 
of hydrogen dioxide, formed by the action of light on the 
water. However, the fatty acid present in rancid lard 
will produce the same effect, and this will be neutralized 
by the carbonate. 

Ceratum Cantharides. — Cantharides, or Blistering Ce- 
rate. — The cantharides is macerated with liquid petro- 
latum to aid in the extraction of the cantharidin. This 
is further facilitated by digestion for one hour in the 
melted fat. 



CHAPTEE XXXV. 

PLASMAS, PASTES, AND POULTICES. 
PLASMA. PLASMAS. 

The substitution of plasmas for ointments is the 
result of an attempt to prepare a vehicle that would 
take the place of and be less objectionable than fats. 
Plasmas usually consist of starch, gelatin, gums, or 
soap, together with an excess of fat, and made into a 
paste with water or glycerin, or a mixture of the two. 
Those made with glycerin keep well, but if much water 
be added they quickly mould, unless some preservative 
be used. 

Glycerite of starch is frequently employed. When 
starch is to be made into a plasma or paste it should be 
first mixed with sufficient cold water to form a homo- 
geneous mixture, and then added, with constant stirring, 
to the water or glycerin previously heated to 1C0° C. 
The heat should then be continued until a transparent 
jelly is formed. Do not use direct heat, as the mixture 
easily burns and becomes brown. 

Mucilage of tragacanth has also been recommended. 
The official preparation contains 18 per cent, of glycerin, 
which might be increased to advantage, but the mucilage 
keeps very well, especially when dispensed in collapsible 
tubes. 



276 PLASMAS, PASTES, AND POULTICES 

Jelly of chondrus may be prepared by following the 
National Formulary directions for the manufacture of 
the mucilage, except that after straining, the mucilage 
should be evaporated until its weight equals ten times 
the weight of the Irish moss taken. 

Jelly of cetraria may be prepared by following the 
National Formulary directions for the decoction of 
cetraria, except that after straining, the decoction is 
evaporated over a water bath until its weight is seven 
times the weight of cetraria taken. . 

Gelatin may be made into a jelly by using about 3 per 
cent, of gelatin. It should be first soaked in cold water 
until soft, and then dissolved with heat. If a glycerin 
solution be desired, the soft gelatin should be dissolved 
in glycerin. The water may be removed by evaporation, 
but it is better to allow it to remain. Agar-agar may be 
used, but has no advantage over gelatin. It is largely 
employed as a culture medium in bacteriological work. 

Plasmas are usually applied like ointments, but are 
sometimes warmed and applied with a brush. The 
method of medication is similar to that employed in the 
preparation of ointments. 



PASTA. PASTES. 

The National Formulary contains several formulas 
for the manufacture of pastes used by dermatologists. 
The vehicle consists of a paste made with dextrine, 
glycerin, and water, or with soap, lard, petrolatum, or 
some oil stiffened with starch or zinc oxide. They are 



CATAPLASM A. POULTICES 277 

of about the consistence of ointments. The medicinal 
agent is incorporated in a manner similar to ointments, 
and should be done with the same care, that a uniformly 
smooth mixture, free from grit, may be obtained. 



CATAPLASMA. POULTICES. 

Poultices are soft, pasty preparations, usually prepared 
from substances containing a large amount of gum or 
albuminous matter, and capable of absorbing and 
retaining a quantity of liquid. Poultices are not usually 
prepared by pharmacists, but pharmacists should be 
able to give directions for their preparation. Poultices 
made from a substance like linseed meal are usually 
prepared by pouring boiling water over the substance, 
constantly stirring until the required consistence is 
obtained. Bread poultice is prepared by rubbing 
bread, free from crust, with hot milk. Poultices are 
thickly spread on cloth and applied to the affected parts 
while as hot as can be borne. They are then covered 
with heavy cloth to retain the heat. Poultices act by 
keeping the parts warm and moist. They may be 
reheated as often as required by occasionally supplying 
the water that may have been lost by evaporation. 

The mustard poultice has been largely replaced by 
mustard plasters. It is best prepared by mixing the 
mustard with an equal weight of flour or linseed meal, 
and making the paste with lukewarm water. Hot water 
should not be used, as it decomposes the glucoside, thus 
destroying the enzyme which liberates the active volatile 



278 PLASMAS, PASTES, AND POULTICES 

oil. It should not be applied as thick as a poultice, and 
a thin soft cloth should be placed between the poultice 
and the skin. Cataplasma kaolin of the Pharmacopoeia 
has to some extent proved a substitute for other poul- 
tices. In the manufacture of this preparation carefully 
observe the direction to heat to 100° C. for one hour, as 
it is important that the kaolin should be dry. 

Fomentation. — Fomentation is the term given to the 
application of woollen cloths saturated with hot water 
or other liquids, or to poultices of herbs applied hot. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

EMPLASTRA. PLASTERS. 

The term plaster is applied to solid substances 
intended for external application, whether they are in 
mass or spread in sheets. They are adhesive at the 
temperature of the body, but are harder than cerates. 
The mass must be softened by heat to admit of spread- 
ing. The base of all pharmacopceial plasters is lead 
plaster or adhesive plaster, and the latter is composed 
of lead plaster, petrolatum, and rubber. 

Preparation. — The method of preparing the plaster 
mass is similar to that used for cerates. The substance 
having the highest melting point should be melted first, 
and the other constituents in the order of their melting 
points. When necessary, the mixture should be strained 
before adding the medicinal substances, which if solid 
should be reduced to fine powder and incorporated with 
the base immediately before congealing. Stir until 
cold. Extracts should be softened with a suitable 
solvent, using the alcohol as strong as possible. Evapo- 
rate fluidextracts to a syrupy consistence. Resinous 
substances may be added in fine powder, or dissolved 
in alcohol and evaporated also to a syrupy consistence. 
Volatile oils and aromatic substances must be added 
last to avoid loss by evaporation. When sufficiently 
cool, roll the mass into cylinders about one and one- 



280 EMPLASTRA. PLASTERS 

half or two inches in diameter, wrap in paraffin paper 
and keep in air-tight containers until wanted for use. 
Never spread plasters until needed, as they oxidize and 
become brittle. 

Spreading Plasters. — Plasters are spread on muslin or 
on thin white leather called plaster skin. The latter 
is stretched upon a smooth board with the rough side up. 
The shape of the plaster may be drawn on the surface, 
and strips of stiff glazed paper placed around it in such 
a manner that an open space will be left the exact size 
and shape of the desired plaster. Also, the form of the 
plaster may be drawn upon paper and the centre cut out 
so that the opening will be of the required size and 
shape. Then place over the skin or muslin and fasten 
with thumb tacks. The form should be drawn so that 
the edges will lie close to the surface and not allow the 
warm mass to work beneath. A good plan is to make 
the form of thin pasteboard, of the same thickness as 
the desired plaster. The mass should be warmed in a 
casserole or evaporating dish over a water bath and 
constantly worked with a spatula. Otherwise a portion 
will become too warm before the remainder is soft 
enough to spread. It should be soft enough to spread 
easily and adhere to the skin or muslin support, but not 
hot enough to pass through it. The mass is then poured 
on to the side of the form nearest the operator and 
spread with a warm spatula. It is best to use two 
spatulas, keeping one in hot water while the other is in 
use. Work rapidly, that the plaster may be finished 
before it becomes cold. In smoothing the surface, work 
from the edges toward the centre, to prevent forcing a 



UNGUENT A EXTENSA 281 

portion of the mass underneath the edges. When the 
surface is made smooth and the plaster uniform in 
thickness, pass the edge of a warm spatula around the 
edge of the plaster close to the form, which may then be 
easily removed. This leaves the edges smooth. The 
skin or muslin should now be neatly trimmed so that an 
even half-inch margin is left around it. The surface of 
the plaster should be covered with wax or paraffin paper. 
Some prefer to paste strips on to the leather. In this 
case they should be kept moist, or they become difficult 
to remove. Cantharides or blistering cerate should not 
be warmed, but should be spread with a warm spatula. 
Formerly special forms and irons were used to assist in 
spreading plasters. But the pharmacist is now so seldom 
called upon to spread plasters at all that the above 
directions are sufficient. At present nearly all plasters 
are manufactured with a rubber base, and are made by 
manufacturing houses using special machinery. Physi- 
cians usually specify the size and shape of the plasters 
ordered. 

A preparation closely allied to plasters is official under 
the name of Charta Sinapis. The fixed oil is removed 
from the mustard by percolating with benzin. The 
dried mustard is then mixed with a solution of rubber 
in benzin, and carbon disulphide, and is then applied 
to thick, well-sized paper. Place in warm water for 
about fifteen seconds before applying to the skin. This 
allows the enzyme to act upon the glucoside, thus liber- 
ating the active volatile oil. 

Unguenta Extensa. — Salve Mulls. Plaster Mulls. 
Steatina. Steatins. — Under this head the National 



282 EM PL ASTRA. PLASTERS 

Formulary includes formulas for salve mulls of zinc 
oxide, salicylic acid, mercuric chloride, and salicylated 
creosote. These were introduced by Dr. Unna. They 
contain from 65 to 90 per cent, of benzoinated suet, 
the remainder being benzoinated lard, together with 
the medicinal agent. They are to be spread on muslin 
or "mull." This is done by stretching a piece of moist 
parchment paper on a board, removing the excess of 
moisture, and covering with a piece of unsized gauze, 
held in place by thumb tacks. The melted and partially 
cooled salve is then evenly spread over the muslin, 
using a flat brush. The surface is smoothed with 
spatulas, kept warm by immersing in warm water, and 
wiping dry each time before using. The muslin is then 
removed from the parchment and hung up until cold, 
when it may be covered with paraffin paper and rolled 
for dispensing. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

SUPPOSITORIA. SUPPOSITORIES. 

Suppositories are solid substances at ordinary 
temperature, and are intended for introduction into the 
body. Cacao butter, glycerinated gelatin, and sodium 
stearate are the vehicles usually selected, as they liquefy 
at body temperature. 

Size and Shape. — The size and shape varies with the 
material and purpose for which they are designed. 
Rectal suppositories should be cone or spindle-shaped, 
and weigh 2 Gm. when made from cacao butter, or 3 
to 4 Gm. when glycerinated gelatin is used. Urethral 
and nasal suppositories, also called bougies, should be 
pencil-shaped and pointed at one end. The length 
should be 7 cm. and the weight 2 Gm. when made from 
cacao butter. When glycerinated gelatin is employed, 
they should be 14 cm. long and weigh 4 Gm. Vaginal 
suppositories may be either globular, uniform, or conical 
in shape, and should weigh about 4 Gm. when made from 
cacao butter, or 10 Gm. when made from glycerinated 
gelatin. 

Owing to the difficulty of introducing conical-shaped 
rectal suppositories caused by the contraction of the 
sphincter muscles, W. S. Wellcome has recommended 
the shape illustrated in Fig. 112. When the pointed end 



284 SUPPOSITORIA. SUPPOSITORIES 

is introduced past its greatest diameter, the tapering 
form aided by the muscular contraction tends to carry 
the suppository inward. Suppositories of cacao butter 
may be made by fusion, without heat, by compression 
or by hand. 

Fig. 112 




Wellcome suppository. 

By Fusion— Medicinal substances like camphor or 
phenol should be dissolved in the melted fat. Dry 
substances should be finely powdered. Extracts should 
be softened with suitable solvents, thoroughly mixed 
with about one-fourth of the grated cacao butter, and 
then added to the remainder, which has been previously 
melted by a very gentle heat. A casserole or evaporating 
dish with a lip may be employed. Stir constantly, and 
when the mixture is of about the consistence of syrup and 
a film has begun to form upon the surface, pour at once 
into well-cooled moulds. Success depends upon a few 
important points. The moulds should be kept clean, 
and just before using should be wiped out with soap 
liniment or glycerin. 

The cacao butter should be barely fluid when the 
portion containing the medicinal substance is added, 
otherwise substances like extracts will separate and can- 
not again be homogeneously mixed. If the mixture be 
not sufficiently cool when poured into the mould, the 



BY FUSION 285 

medicinal substance will settle to the point of the sup- 
pository and the mass adhere to the moulds so that they 
cannot be easily removed. If not convenient to obtain 
ice with which to cool the moulds, they may be cooled 
by spraying with ether or by placing them in water and 
adding sufficient ammonium nitrate or sodium thio- 
sulphate to produce the saturated solution. The cold 
produced by the solution of the salt will cool the moulds 
sufficiently. When cold the end of the suppository 
should be slightly convex, but will be 'concave if the 
mixture was too warm when poured. If the supposi- 
tories have been properly made, a slight jar or pressure 
upon the point will cause them to drop out of the 
moulds when opened. 

Some pharmacists favor the addition of from 5 to 20 
per cent, of wax or spermaceti when making supposi- 
tories in summer, or in warm countries. This may be 
done when the medicinal substance lowers the melting 
point, as with phenol, camphor, volatile oils, chloral 
hydrate, etc. But wax or spermaceti should not be 
used without knowing the melting point of the product, 
which must be below the body temperature. This 
body temperature is no higher in summer than in winter, 
or in a hot than in a cold climate. It should also be 
remembered that certain substances raise the melting 
point of cacao butter. This is especially true of some 
of the salts of iron, silver, lead, bismuth, and zinc. 
Mr. Clague (The Chemist and Druggist, xxxviii, SCO) 
found that 20 per cent, of tannic acid increased the 
melting point 7° C, which would raise it above the 
body temperature. 



286 



S UP PO SI TORI A . SUPPOSITORIES 



Suppository Moulds.— Figs. 113, 114, 115, and 116 
illustrate a few of the different varieties of moulds in 



Fig. 113 




See's suppository mould. 
Fig. 114 




Wirz's suppository mould. 
Fig. 115 




Hinged suppository mould. 



general use. As moulds vary in size, the capacity of 
those used should be tested and recorded, that the 
operator may know how full to fill them in order to 



SUPPOSITORY MOULDS 



287 



secure a suppository of a given weight. Cone-shaped 
paper moulds may be made by sharpening a pencil or 
piece of wood and wrapping a piece of glazed paper 



Fig. 116 




Blackman's suppository mould. 
Fig. 117 





Remington's suppository mould. 

around it. The form and upright position may be 
retained by pressing them into sand, or into a hole 
punched in a pasteboard box. Very convenient rubber 
moulds may be obtained (Fig. 117), but they have no 



288 SUPPOSITORIA. SUPPOSITORIES 

special advantage over metallic moulds, especially when 
used by a competent pharmacist. 

Cacao Butter Suppositories Made without Heat. — The 
medicinal substance should be thoroughly mixed in a 
mortar with a small portion of shaved or grated cacao 
butter, and the remainder added then kneaded into a 
homogeneous plastic mass. If necessary, one or two 
drops of almond or castor oil may be added for each 
suppository. The mass is then placed upon a board, 
rolled into a cylinder by means of a pill roller, and 
divided into the required number of suppositories. 
Then, picking up each piece with a bit of muslin, roll 
between the fingers into a globular shape. Place upon 
the board, and with a pill roller, held at a slight angle, 
roll quickly into the desired shape. . Porcelain, glass 
or metal surfaces are not good for this purpose, as the 
surface of the mass becomes chilled, causing it to 
crumble. In this event the mass should be softened 
between the fingers and again rolled. A piece of paper 
placed over the slab frequently prevents the mass from 
chilling and adhering to the slab. In hot weather the 
slab may be dusted with a little powdered castile soap. 
This is unnecessary except in extreme cases. If the 
mass be too soft, it will usually stiffen if allowed to lie 
a short time while partially forming the other supposi- 
tories. Never use starch, lycopodium, or any other 
dusting powder that will prevent the surface of the 
suppository from melting or becoming slippery when 
brought into contact with the warm moist sensitive 
membrane. When suppositories contain large amounts 
of some insoluble powder like quinine it is advisable to 



COMPRESSED SUPPOSITORIES 



289 



coat them by impaling on the point of a pin and dipping 
them for an instant in pure melted cacao butter. The 
cacao butter must be barely melted, but must not be hot. 

The manufacture of suppositories by hand requires 
a certain skill, which is easily acquired by practice. 
It will then be possible to turn out suppositories com- 
paring favorably with those made by a machine or in 
moulds, and have the advantage of being as easily made 
of any size or shape as pills. Also, the medicinal sub- 
stance is uniformly distributed through the mass. 

Compressed Suppositories. — The preparation of a 
mass for compressed suppositories is the same as when 

Fig. 118 




Whitall suppository machine, 



19 



290 



SUPPOSITORIA. SUPPOSITORIES 



made by hand. The mass is then placed in a machine 
and forced into moulds. There are two classes of 



Fig. 119 



Fig. 120 




The "Perfection" suppository mould. 
Fig. 121 




The "Perfection" mould starter. 



machines in use. Those like the Archibald and Whitall- 
Tatum (Fig. 118) force the butter into the large end of 
the mould, which opens in the centre to allow the re- 



COMPRESSED SUPPOSITORIES 



291 



moval of the suppository. There is also the "Perfection" 
(Figs. 119 and 120), TYhitall (Fig. 122), and the Pearl 
(Fig. 123), which force the mass into the mould through a 



Fig. 122 




"Whitall's suppository machine. 
Fig. 123 




Pearl suppository machine. 



292 SUPPOSITORIA. SUPPOSITORIES 

small opening in the point. By removing the plate at 
the opposite end of the mould and giving another turn 
of the screw, the suppositories are ejected. Each 
machine is supplied with interchangeable moulds for 
different sizes of suppositories. Warm the mould when 
difficult to remove, but in no case strike them directly 
with a hammer or other metallic substance, as the moulds 
are of soft metal and easily ruined by denting. If force 
must be used, deaden the blow of the hammer by a piece 
of soft wood placed on the metal. A mould starter 
(Fig. 121) is supplied with the "Perfection" machines. 
Glycerinated Gelatin Suppositories. — The Pharma- 
copoeia gives directions for the manufacture and size of 
glycerin jelly suppositories, and a formula for glyceri- 
nated gelatin containing 50 per cent, of gelatin. The 
medicinal substance is to be dissolved in a little water, 
if soluble. If insoluble, it is to be levigated with glycerin, 
and sufficient glycerin added to make the weight equal 
to one-half that of the finished mass. This is then 
incorporated with an equal weight of glycerinated 
gelatin and poured into moulds previously greased with 
a small quantity of petrolatum. The finished product 
contains 25 per cent, of gelatin. When a firmer mass 
is desired, a portion of the water or glycerin may be 
replaced by mucilage of acacia. If a softer mass be 
required increase the amount of glycerin. The general 
formula answers for most cases. Hydroscopic drugs 
require the addition of acacia, while large amounts of 
insoluble powders may require a softer mass. Metal 
urethral moulds should be warmed to allow the mixture 
to flow their entire length. 



GLYCERIN SUPPOSITORIES 293 

Glycerin Suppositories. — The vehicle for glycerin 
suppositories is stearin soap, which is prepared by the 
action of the stearic acid on the monohydrated sodium 
carbonate. 



Reaction : 






2HC 18 H 35 2 + Na 2 C0 3 = 

Stearic acid. Sodium 
carbonate. 


2NaC 18 H 35 2 

Sodium 

stearate. 


+ C0 2 + H 2 0. 

Carbon Water, 
dioxide. 



Suppositories containing hydroscopic substances are 
sometimes coated with paraffin, wax, or collodion by 
impaling them on the point of a pin and dipping them 
quickly in the collodion or melted paraffin. A great 
objection is that the patient frequently neglects to 
remove the coating, directions for which should always 
accompany coated suppositories. A better coating is 
cacao butter, which does not require removal. 

Cacao butter shells and gelatin suppository capsules to 
be filled with the medicinal substance have been intro- 
duced, but are seldom used, as they have no advantage 
over other suppositories. If they are ordered, the 
medicinal agent should be thoroughly mixed with grated 
cacao butter, divided into doses and placed in the shells. 
Those made with cacao butter may be sealed by warm- 
ing the end of the shell before replacing the cover. 
Those made of gelatin are like ordinary gelatin capsules, 
but having a cone-shaped cover. If necessary, they 
may be sealed by dipping the edges in a little water 
spread on the pill tile. 

Suppositories are usually dispensed in special boxes 
provided with divisions to prevent the suppositories 
adhering to each other. They may be also dusted with 
a little powdered castile soap when necessary. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

STILL PENCILS. 

Pencils are small cylinders about 5 mm. thick and 
5 cm. long. The Pharmacopoeia does not recognize 
them as a class, but gives directions for the manufacture 
of moulded silver nitrate. When silver nitrate is fused 
and moulded it is brittle and easily broken. To prevent 
this, the Pharmacopoeia directs the addition of 4 per cent, 
of official hydrochloric acid. Mitigated silver nitrate is 
made in the same manner, but contains 66.6 per cent, 
of potassium nitrate. 

A few other chemicals may be formed into pencils 
by melting and pouring into moulds which should be 
absolutely clean, and warmed to prevent the too sudden 
cooling of the melted mass. A sudden fall in tempera- 
ture causes the pencils to become brittle. The mass 
should be only slightly above its fusing point. Copper 
sulphate pencils are sometimes formed by scraping or 
filing selected crystals. They may also be made by 
fusion and are sometimes diluted with alum. 

Stili Dilubiles. — Paste Pencils. — The National For- 
mulary furnishes two formulas with directions for the 
manufacture of paste pencils, which may serve as 
examples of this class of preparations. The medicinal 
substance is incorporated with the vehicle, composed 
of tragacanth, 5 per cent. ; dextrine, 35 per cent. ; sugar, 



STILI DILU BILES 295 

20 per cent., and sufficient starch to make 100 per cent., 
including the medicinal agent. Water is then added to 
form a firm plastic mass, which is rolled into cylinders 
about 5 mm. in diameter and 5 cm. long. Dry on 
parchment or paper, at room temperature, and wrap in 
tin foil. Gelatin is sometimes used. Pencils are also 
made with wax and fats, employing the same methods 
used in the manufacture of urethral suppositories. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

PULVERES. POWDERS. 

The method of obtaining various substances in 
powdered form has already been considered under 
Comminution. There, however, remains for considera- 
tion the class of preparations known as powders. 
These usually consist of two or more substances inti- 
mately mixed in a finely divided condition. For the 

Fig. 124 




Mortar and pestle. 

preparation of such substances a shallow mortar should 
be used (Fig. 124). Each substance should be powdered 
separately and then all mixed together. When mixing 
powders in a mortar, the pressure should be light, in 
order to prevent the formation of compact layers upon 
the mortar and pestle. 



DISPENSING POWDERS 297 

Begin triturating at the centre and gradually increase 
the circle toward the edge of the mortar; then diminish 
to the centre. During trituration the substance adhering 
to the sides of the mortar should be scraped occasionally 
to the centre of the mortar with a spatula. When 
potent medicines are to be mixed with less active sub- 
stances, mix them thoroughly with about an equal 
volume of the less active substance, and the remainder 
gradually added. When a very heavy substance is to 
be mixed with a lighter body, the lighter substance 
should be gradually added to the heavier. When it is 
desirable to mix substances which decompose easily 
or form explosive compounds, as the hydrophosphites 
and the chlorates in contact with organic substances, 
they should be powdered separately and later carefully 
mixed on paper, using a horn or hard rubber spatula. 
This may be accomplished also by repeated sif tings. 
Many substances become electrified by trituration. 
This may be prevented by moistening with alcohol or 
ether, which quickly evaporate. Otherwise it may be 
necessary to let the powder stand before dispensing 
until the electric condition passes away. Large quan- 
tities of powder are most successfully mixed in a mechan- 
ical mixer (Fig. 102, p. 145), or by continued agitation 
in a partially filled bottle. Finally, it is advisable to 
sift all powders after mixing, and in no case to press 
or triturate after sifting. 

Dispensing Powders. — At present it is customary to 
dispense in powdered form only such substances as are 
insoluble or are free from objectionable flavor. It is 
frequently necessary to give powders to children when 



298 PULVERES. POWDERS 

they cannot be induced to swallow a more solid sub- 
stance; or to adults who imagine they cannot swallow 
a pill or capsule. When undivided powders are pre- 
scribed, they may be dispensed in round paper boxes, but 
it is better to use the salt mouth bottles, and if a selected 
cork be not used, place a piece of thin parchment paper 
over the mouth of the bottle before inserting the cork. 
The methods of dividing powders differ even in the 
best pharmacies. Doubtless the most accurate method 
is to divide the total weight by the number of powders 
to be made to obtain the weight of each powder 
which should be weighed separately. To many this 
appears to be a tedious method, but a little practice 
enables one to weigh them very rapidly. Others 
prefer to place the powder on a pill tile or a graduated 
powder board, and with the spatula form the powder 
into a rectangular shape, and divide. Should the pile 
be high in the centre, smooth the surface and again 
adjust. In no case should it be pressed down with a 
spatula, as this decreases the height only without 
decreasing the quantity. Others distribute the powders 
upon the papers with a spatula and judge of the size by 
the eye. While we must admit that some become expert 
and attain a high degree of accuracy, yet the method 
cannot be recommended. 

For the division of powders there are several good 
mechanical dividers. Figs. 125 and 126 illustrate 
Michael's powder divider, which is furnished with 
three sets of dividers for 8, 10, and 12 powders. By 
using divisions or multiples of these, any number of 
powders may be obtained. If the divider for 12 be 



DISPENSING POWDERS 



299 



placed in the machine, 6 powders will be obtained by 
turning it until 2 powders drop on each paper. In a 



Fig. 125 




Fig. 126 




Filled. Discharging the powder. 

Michael's powder divider. 



Fig. 127 



^mkT 




Diamond powder divider. 



similar manner 3 powders upon each paper will give 4 
powders, or 4 upon each will give 3 powders, etc. In 
the Diamond divider (Fig. 127) the bottom of the trough 



300 PULVERES. POWDERS 

is broad and flat and the powder is adjusted with the 
leveller by a sliding motion and not by pressure. The 
powders are then divided and removed with the broad 
spatula. Cup-shaped dividers are frequently recom- 
mended for the division of Seidlitz powders, but accurate 
division can be attained only by special care, as slight 
variations in pressure or in the dryness of the powder 
will cause variation in the weight of the powder. They 
are not to be recommended, but if used should be 
frequently tested. 

Folding of Powders. — The most important part of the 
dispensing of powders is the selection of the paper with 
reference to quantity and size. Parchment or thin, 
white calendered paper should be used and cut into 
different sizes. The length of each should be at least 
one and one-half times its width. When the powders 
are ready to divide, make a single fold one-eighth inch 
from the edge in the required number of papers. Place 
close together near the edge of the table, with the folded 
edge away from the operator. After the powder is 
placed upon the table, and the second finger of each 
hand placed upon the paper at the end, then the edge 
nearest the operator is raised with the thumb and 
folded over until it rests in the previously made fold, 
when, with the forefingers, the edges are folded back- 
ward to the centre. The ends are then creased by 
pressing them over the sides of a powder box, or, better 
still, with an adjustable powder folder (Fig. 128). The 
ends may also be folded over a spatula. Some press 
down the folds of the paper with the spatula. In doing 
this care should be taken to prevent pressing the powder, 



FOLDING OF POWDERS 301 

as, with some powders, it tends to form hard cakes. 
One end should then be tucked within the fold of the 
other. If this be not done the natural spring of the paper 
causes the ends to assume a position at a greater or less 
angle from the body of the powder. This tension fre- 
quently causes the powders to spring out of the box 
when opened. In Europe the papers are frequently 
kept in readiness, being folded lengthwise. The 
powders are weighed and placed in narrow horned 

Fig. 128 





Adjustable powder folders. 

spoons. Then the required number of papers are all 
folded over at one end and held in the hand, while the 
contents of the spoons are poured into the papers; then 
the upper ends are folded over a spatula. In any case 
skill is acquired only by practice. Substances liable to 
change on exposure to air, especially those that are 
volatile or deliquescent, should be wrapped in parch- 
ment paper. Powders are frequently dispensed in 
capsules or wafers. (See Capsules, p. 324.) 

Wafers are made of rice flour and put up in different 
forms. Square or round sheets have been practically 
replaced by cachets or konseals, which are concave 
disks. The powder is placed in one of them and another 



302 



PULVERES. POWDERS 



is used as a cover. They are sealed by dampening the 
edges of the cover and pressing together. This may be 



Fig. 129 




Konseal apparatus filled with konseals. 
Fig. 130 




Konseal apparatus empty. 



EXPLANATORY NOTES 303 

easily accomplished by pressing the edges between the 
lips of two bottles of proper size. A better method is to 
use a special machine, of which there are several upon 
the market. 

Figs. 129 and 130 illustrate the use of J. N. Grosvener 
& Co.'s konseal filling and closing apparatus. In Fig. 
129 the konseals are placed between plates 2 and 3 and 
filled by means of the hopper. Before removing the 

Fig. 131 




Sealed konseals. 

hopper the powder is gently pressed into form with a 
thimble, not shown. In Fig. 130, plate 3 is opened 
and the konseal covers in plate 1 are being moistened, 
after which plate 1 is folded over on to 2. A slight 
pressure with the hand is then sufficient to seal the 
konseals. 

The Pharmacopoeia contains formulas for nine pow- 
ders, a few of which are especially mentioned. 



EXPLANATORY NOTES. 

Pulvis Effervescens Compositus. — Compound Effer- 
vescent Powders. Seidlitz Powder. — This consists of 
sodium bicarbonate and rochelle salt put up in blue 
paper, and tartaric acid accompanying it enclosed in 
white paper. When mixed and moistened or dissolved 



304 PULVERES. POWDERS 

in water the acid acts on the carbonate, liberating car- 
bon dioxide. 

Reaction : 

2NaHC0 3 + H 2 C 4 H 4 6 = Na 2 C 4 H 4 6 + 2C0 2 + H 2 0. 

Sodium Tartaric acid. Sodium tartrate. Carbon Water, 

bicarbonate. dioxide. 

The powders should be divided by weight, not by 
measure, and should also be kept in a dry place to pre- 
vent absorption of moisture. When taken, the powders 
should be dissolved separately and the acid solution 
gradually added to the other. Some prefer to dissolve 
the contents of the blue paper in two-thirds of a glass 
of water, and then add the contents of the white paper. 

Pulvis Glycyrrhizae Compositus. — Compound Licorice 
Powder. — The object of mixing the oil of fennel with a 
portion of the sugar is to insure a more uniform distri- 
bution of the oil than would occur if triturated with the 
mixed powders. 

Pulvis Ipecacuanha et Opii. — Powdered Ipecac and 
Opium. Dover's Powder. — Contains 10 per cent, each 
of opium and ipecac. Sugar of milk in No. 30 powder 
is directed to be used as a diluent because the crystals 
are hard, and during the necessary trituration insures 
a uniform mixture of the ipecac and opium. 

Pulvis Rhei Compositus. — Compound Rhubarb Pow- 
der. — Observe that it is directed to add the magnesium 
oxide to the other ingredients previously mixed, which 
is in accord with previous directions to mix very light 
substances with heavier ones. 

The National Formulary contains formulas and 
directions for the manufacture of a number of powders, 



EXPLANATORY NOTES 305 

Effervescent Powders. — Effervescent powders are those 
which contain the medicinal substance incorporated 
with sugar, tartaric acid, and sodium or potassium bicar- 
bonate. Each substance should be dry and well pow- 
dered, then uniformly mixed and kept in .closely stop- 
pered bottles. If dampness occurs, the acid and alkaline 
bicarbonate unite and do not liberate the carbon dioxide 
when dissolved. The reaction is the same as that given 
under compound effervescing powder. 

Granular Effervescent Salts. — These are similar to 
effervescent powders, but are prepared in the granular 
form and citric acid is substituted for part of the tar- 
taric acid, as the mixture is more easily granulated. In 
the National Formulary sugar is present in all the 
effervescent salts, but is not present in those of the 
Pharmacopeia. 

Granulation. — There are two methods of granulating 
effervescent salts. In the first, heat is used to soften the 
powder by means of the molecule of water in the citric 
acid. The National Formulary directs that the mixture 
be heated in an evaporating dish, placed over a water 
bath, and maintained at from 60° C. to 71° C. Stir 
constantly with a wooden spatula until the powder is 
dry and uniformly granular. The Pharmacopma directs 
to place the mixture on a glass plate or suitable vessel 
in an oven previously heated to between 93° and 104° C. 
until the mixture softens. With a wooden spatula rub 
through a No. 6 tinned iron sieve and dry at a tempera- 
ture not exceeding 54° C. If the mixture be slowly 
heated it gradually loses the water and becomes dry 
without softening. Therefore, it cannot be granulated 
20 



306 PULVERES. POWDERS 

without the addition of moisture. If the mixture be 
made too moist or be heated too high, it loses carbon 
dioxide, and will not effervesce when dissolved. In the 
second method the mixture is moistened with alcohol 
until the particles are sufficiently adhesive to unite in 
small granules when stirred. The size of the granules 
may be regulated by the amount of moisture added. 
When sufficiently granular it is spread upon paper or 
cloth and allowed to dry. In damp weather they should 
be dried in an oven or over a radiator. Avoid too high 
a temperature as the granules are apt to become yellow. 
The granules may be made uniform by passing through 
a series of sieves and regranulating those too large or 
too small. 

Salts containing much water of crystallization, like 
magnesium sulphate or sodium phosphate, should be 
dried before mixing with substances to be granulated. 
Otherwise the mixture becomes too wet and the alkali 
and acid react. 



TRITURATIONES. TRITURATIONS. 

Triturates contain 10 per cent, of the medicinal sub- 
stance in 90 per cent, of sugar of milk. They are pre- 
pared by triturating the finely powdered medicinal 
substances with an equal weight of powdered sugar of 
milk, until uniformly mixed. The remainder is gradu- 
ally added, triturating after each addition and con- 
tinuing the trituration until a uniformly fine powder 
results. The crystals of sugar of milk are hard, hence 



OLEOSACCHARA. OIL SUGARS 307 

they are especially fitted for trituration with other 
substances to produce a fine powder. The only medi- 
cated triturate recognized by the Pharmacopoeia is 
Trituratio Elaterini, Trituration of Elaterin. 



OLEOSACCHARA. OIL SUGARS. 

Oil sugars are prepared by triturating one part of 
some volatile oil with thirty parts of powdered cane 
sugar. They are seldom ordered, and should be freshly 
prepared when wanted. 



CHAPTER XL. 

PILUL.E. PILLS. 

Pills are spherical, ovoid, or lenticular bodies for 
internal administration, and should be soluble in the 
fluids of the stomach or bowels. They should weigh 
from 0.03 Gm. to 0.06 Gm. (1 gr. to 10 gr.) When large 
the oval form is more easily swallowed. 

Boluses are larger than pills, and are used principally 
in veterinary practice. 

Palvules are smaller than pills and contain potent 
remedies in small doses. They are usually sugar 
coated either pink or red. 

Granules are either very small pills coated with sugar, 
or they are medicated sugar pellets. 

Pills are a favorite form of medication on account of 
their compact form, accurate dosage, ease of adminis- 
tration, and stability. A thorough knowledge of the 
physical characteristics of the constituent of a pill is 
essential in order to obtain the best results in their 
manufacture. The active constituents should be 
evenly distributed throughout the mass in order to 
secure uniformity in the doses. Solids and crystalline 
bodies should be reduced to fine powder. Soft extracts 
should be weighed on counterpoised pieces of paraffin 
paper, or paper dusted with lycopodium. Most extracts 
can be easily removed from ordinary paper by wetting 



PILULE. PILLS 309 

the back of the paper. Hard extracts, incapable of 
being powdered, should be softened either by heat or by 
the judicious addition of the proper solvent, preferably 
the same used in their manufacture. Extracts fre- 
quently contain acids, which should be neutralized 
before mixing with carbonates, or, if mixed with a car- 
bonate, the mass should be warmed to expel the carbonic 
oxide before rolling out the mass. Strong alkaloids or 
other substances administered in small doses should be 
first carefully triturated with a little sugar of milk or 
some other powder with which they may be prescribed. 
When prescribed alone, sufficient inert powder like 
sugar of milk should be added so that the finished pill 
may weigh about 0.06 Gm. (one grain). When small 
quantities of a poisonous drug are to be weighed, it is 
better carefully to prepare a triturate (see Triturates, 
p. 306) in such proportions that correct amounts may be 
accurately weighed. For weighing fractions of a grain, 
a triturate made in the proportion of one part to eleven 
of sugar of milk is convenient; in which case 1 gr. = ^ ; 

2 g r - = h 3 g r - = h 4 g r - = h 6 g r - = h 8 g r - = f • 
For decimal fractions a triturate of one in ten or one in 

one hundred is most convenient. All of the constituents 
should be thoroughly and uniformly mixed before 
attempting to form the mass. Success in the manu- 
facture of pills depends upon the proper formation of 
the mass. This should be plastic, so that it may readily 
be formed into the desired shape, and sufficiently firm 
to retain that shape; but it should not be permitted to 
become so hard or insoluble that it will not dissolve or 
disintegrate when placed in warm water for a short 



310 PILULM. PILLS 

time. Badly made pills have been known to pass 
through the body unchanged. The mass is formed by 
the cautious addition of some inert substance. In the 
case of powders, employ some moist excipient, but in the 
use of oils or moist substances an absorbent powder 
must be added. 

Pill Excipients.— The excipient used may vary to suit 
the individual case. The particles must be bound 
together by some adhesive substance. Many substances, 
like opium, aloes, and gum resins, contain sufficient 
gum or other adhesive material to form a mass by the 
simple addition of some solvent, as water. In such 
cases it is advisable to add a little soap, otherwise the 
pill hardens and dissolves with difficulty. Many sub- 
stances are non-adhesive, and will not unite to form a 
mass without the addition of some adhesive substance. 

Tragacanth is frequently used as an excipient, but 
should never be used without glycerin to prevent hard- 
ening. Mucilage of tragacanth contains glycerin, and 
is useful in the manufacture of small pills, but it is 
objectionable for large ones, as it increases the size. 

Acacia with glycerin has been used, but should not be 
recommended, as it hardens and has no advantage over 
other excipients. 

Glycerite of starch is similar to tragacanth. 

Syrupy glucose is an excellent excipient for many 
substances, such as powdered drugs, ' alkaloids, syn- 
thetics, reduced iron, ferrous salts, mercurous salts, and 
salts generally that are not easily reduced. In addition 
to its adhesive properties it acts as a preservative for 
substances easily oxidized. Glucose with a little althea 



GENERAL PILL EXCIPIENT 31 1 

or licorice is a good excipient for camphor, thymol, 
chloral, etc., and especially for combinations of these 
which liquefy on mixing. Glycerite of starch is very 
adhesive, a small quantity being sufficient to form a 
mass. Consequently, it does not increase the size and 
does not harden at ordinary temperatures. When too 
thick it may be diluted. 

Honey is a good excipient for colored pills, but has no 
particular advantage over glucose. 

Confection of rose was formerly much used as an 
excipient, but enjoys no advantage over honey or glucose. 

Soap is a desirable excipient for resinous substances, 
as it forms a good mass and increases the solubility. 
However, it should not be used with metallic salts, as 
decomposition results, forming oleates, palmitates, and 
stearates. 

General Pill Excipient. — This is also erroneously 
called "universal" pill excipient. A universal pill 
excipient is impossible, but several formulas have been 
proposed which may be quite generally used for pow- 
dered drugs and dry substances that are not adhesive. 
One of the best general pill excipients is a mixture of 
equal parts of glycerite of tragacanth and syrupy 
glucose. Remington's general pill excipient contains 
glucose, 4 oz. ; glycerin, 1 oz. ; acacia, 90 gr. ; and ben- 
zoic acid, 1 gr. Few of the general excipients possess 
any advantage over glucose, which is an especially good 
excipient for metallic oxides. These oxides should not 
be massed with excipients containing glycerin. In many 
cases oxides so massed unite to form an insoluble 
cement. 



312 PILULM. PILLS 

Petrolatum and cacao butter are used for easily 
reducible substances like potassium permanganate, 
silver oxide or nitrate, and also for very deliquescent 
salts. Potassium permanganate and the silver com- 
pounds are usually administered in small doses. It is, 
therefore, necessary to mix them first with sufficient 
inert substance like kaolin to make the combined weight 
one grain (64 mg.). Then mass by the cautious addition 
of the excipient. 

Potassium borotartrate, with half its weight of 
water, is recommended by Caspari as an excipient for 
very deliquescent substances, two drops being sufficient 
for sixty grains of chloral hydrate, with one-sixth grain 
of tragacanth to each pill. 

Mattison's excipient powder is composed of trag- 
acanth, one part; finely powdered elm bark, seven parts; 
and is recommended for scale salts, metallic salts, reduced 
iron, camphor, and lupulin. One part of the powder to 
ten of the substance suffices in most cases. Mass with 
a little syrup. 

Phosphorus may be made into pills by following 
the directions for their manufacture found in the 
United States Pharmacopoeia. (See Explanatory Notes, 
p. 318.) 

Absorbent Powders. — Many substances are too soft 
to form into pills without the addition of some absorbent 
powder, but this should be sparingly used so that the size 
of the pill need not be unduly increased. Furthermore, 
the large amount of gum in althea is likely to interfere 
with the solubility of the pill. A little sugar should be 
used with althea. When the active principle is not 



FORMATION OF THE PILL MASS 313 

volatile nor injured by heat, remove the excess of moist- 
ure by spreading upon a plate and gently warming. 
Althea or licorice root is useful for soft extracts, but 
when something more adhesive is desired, the extract 
of licorice may be used. Althea or licorice root com- 
bined with soap is a good absorbent for volatile oils and 
similar substances. Tragacanth or acacia should not be 
used, as the pills harden and dissolve with difficulty 
unless glycerin be used. In this case the pills are too 
large. When a white absorbent is desired, use starch or 
flour. Magnesia has largely been used as an absorbent, 
but it is a questionable practice, as magnesia slowly 
unites with water, forming a hard mass which in a few 
hours becomes practically insoluble. It combines with 
resins and the acids of some oils like copaiba. The 
action is more rapid in the presence of a little water. 
Formerly the mass of copaiba contained one-sixteenth 
of its weight of magnesia. 

Soap forms a more soluble compound, and should be 
used instead of magnesia. It is also a good absorbent 
for balsams, oleoresins, hydrocarbons, creosote, phenol, 
and volatile oil in proportion of one-half grain for each 
minim of the oil. 

Pepsin or pancreatin also makes a good excipient for 
creosote, guaiacol, phenol, and volatile oils in the pro- 
portion of about one grain to each minim of the oil and 
mix with a little water, about three drops for ten pills. 

Formation of the Pill Mass. — The pill mass should be 
formed in a deep mortar, using a pestle sufficiently long 
to prevent contact between the fingers and the edge of 
the mortar. The pestle should be long, and the upper 



314 



PILULM. PILLS 



end broad to protect the hand (Fig. 132). A stiff spatula 
with a broad end is convenient for massing and rolling 
pills. Form the mass by kneading rather than by 
trituration, keeping it well in the centre of the mortar 
by frequently scraping from the side with the spatula. 



Fig. 132 



Fig. 133 




Pill roller. 



Add the excipient cautiously, remembering 
that it is easier to add more when needed, 
but impossible to remove a surplus. The 
spatula used in the mortar should never 
be used to remove the excipient from its 
container. Should the mass become too 
soft, an absorbent powder may be added, 
but this unnecessarily increases the size of 
the pill. Remember that a small pill is 
far more easily swallowed than a large 
one. A mass that appears too dry may 
frequently become soft enough by continual 
kneading. A properly made mass when ready to roll 
is firm enough to retain its shape, and not soft enough 
to stick to the fingers. The mass is then placed upon 
the pill tile, and with a spatula, or preferably with a 
pill roller (Fig. 133), roll into pipes or cylinders of 
such length that they may be accurately divided into 



Pill pestle. 



DIVISION OF CYLINDERS INTO PILLS 315 

the required number of pills. In rolling care should 
be exercised to prevent the cylinder from becoming 
thicker in one part than another. A uniform diameter 
must be secured, and the end should be, frequently 
squared by pressing with the spatula. Should the 
mass adhere to the tile, use a dusting powder. For 
colored pills use lycopodium or powdered licorice root; 
for white pills use starch or talcum. 

Division of Cylinders into Pills. — When dividing into 
pills on an ordinary graduated pill tile the cylinder 
should be held in place with one hand, and cut with the 

Fig. 134 




Diamond pill roller and cutter. 

spatula held in the other. Otherwise the cylinder moves 
with each cut, and the last pill will be larger than the 
others. The Diamond pill cutter and roller (Fig. 134) 
cuts pills by pressing a spring, carrying the knives 
downward upon the cylinder, and when the spring is 
released forces the pills from between the knives. 
Cooper's pill machine (Fig. 135) is used exclusively by 
many pharmacists, and is especially convenient for 
manufacturing large numbers of pills. The machine 
may be obtained furnished with three sets of grooved 
reversible plates, capable of cutting and rolling six 



316 



P1LUL/E. PILLS 



different sizes of pills. On each side of the machine are 
brass plates, capable of adjustment for rolling cylinders 
of proper diameter for each size of pill. By placing 
the cylinders on the grooved plates and gently press- 
ing upon them with the corresponding plate, at the 
same time moving it backward and forward, the pills 
will not only be divided, but will assume their proper 
form. When pills are too large or too small to be formed 
in the grooves of a machine, or when divided on a pill 

Fig. 135 




"WWWWN-> 



The Cooper patent pill machine. 



tile, it will be necessary to shake them by hand, rolling 
them between the thumb and first two fingers. This 
should be practised until one or more pills can be 
rapidly shaped in each hand at the same time. The 
beginner should never be allowed to use two hands to 
roll one pill. Some pharmacists prefer to shape the pill 
hastily and then finish all at once under a pill finisher 
(Figs. 136 and 137). The pills are collected on the slab 
beneath the finisher, which has a projecting rib to keep 
them from rolling out. The motion of the finisher 



EXPLANATORY NOTES 



317 



should be of the form of a figure 8, which brings all parts 
of the pill into contact with the finisher much better than 
a continuous circular motion. If the pills be firm and a 
little dusting powder be used, it is unnecessary to place 
any powder in the box. An oval shape may be given 



Fig. 136 



Fig. 137 





Pill finisher. 



Adjustable pill finisher. 



pills by rolling them, after they are finished, in one 
direction between the thumb and fingers, or under the 
finisher. The Pharmacopoeia contains fourteen for- 
mulas for pills. Little difficulty is experienced in their 
manufacture, since the kind of excipient necessary is 
directed in each case. 



EXPLANATORY NOTES. 



Pilulae Aloes et Ferri. — Pills of Aloes and Iron. — 
Confection of rose used as an excipient, as sugar and 
honey prevent the oxidation of the ferrous sulphate. 

Pilulse Aloes et Mastiches. — Pills of Aloes and Mastic. 
Lady Webster Dinner Pills. — The solubility of these 
pills could be improved by using confection of rose and 






318 PILULE. PILLS 

a few drops of water in place of the powdered red 
rose and diluted with alcohol. 

Pilulse Ferri Carbonatis. — Pills of Carbonate of Iron. 
Blaud's Pills. — The ferrous carbonate is formed from 
potassium carbonate and ferrous sulphate. 

Reaction : 

K 2 C0 3 + FeS0 4 = FeC0 3 + K 2 S0 4 . 

Potassium Ferrous Ferrous Potassium 

carbonate. sulphate. carbonate. sulphate. 

The sulphate of iron is triturated with sugar before 
mixing with the carbonate, to prevent oxidation. H. 
B. Dunning uses licorice and glucose instead of glycerin, 
althea, and tragacanth. The mass is not so tough and 
is not so easily oxidized. 

Pilulse Ferri Iodidi. — Pills of Ferrous Iodide. — The 
ferrous iodide is formed by the action of the iodine on 
reduced iron, which is in excess, to prevent oxidation. 

Reaction : 

Fe + I 2 = Fel 2 . 

Iron. Iodine. Ferrous iodide. 

It is directed that the iodine be gradually added to the 
iron. Otherwise the reaction is too violent, and the heat 
produced causes a volatilization of part of the iodine. 
As ferrous iodide is easily oxidized, the pills are coated 
with tolu. (See Dunning's Method, p. 319.) 

Pilulae Phosphorici. — Pills of Phosphorus. — Phos- 
phorus is very inflammable even in warm air; there- 
fore, the necessity of keeping and cutting it under water. 
Even the slight friction of cutting in dry air may cause 
it to ignite. In weighing, a watchglass containing water 



TOLU COATING 319 

should be counterpoised on the balance and the pieces 
of phosphorus taken from its container by means of 
forceps, dried between filter paper, and at once dropped 
into the watchglass. After weighing, the pieces should 
again be dried between the papers and placed at once 
in a test-tube containing chloroform; heat gently without 
agitation. The remaining directions should be carefully 
followed, and the pill at once coated with tolu. 

Coating Pills. — Doubtless the original object in coating 
pills was to conceal their disagreeable taste, but it also 
tends to preserve them in their normal condition and 
prevents atmospheric action. It is for the latter purpose 
that the Pharmacopoeia directs pills of phosphorus and 
ferrous iodide to be coated with tolu. Pills to be coated 
should be firm and perfectly free from dust. If dusting 
powder has been used in their manufacture, it must be 
removed by shaking them in a sieve or rolling them on 
muslin. 

Tolu Coating. — This is also called varnishing, because 
the coating is resinous. Tolu hardened by the loss of 
part of its volatile oil is preferable. The formula fur- 
nished by H. A. B. Dunning gives the best results. Five 
grains of tolu are dissolved in 20 Cc. of alcohol and 
5 Cc. of ether. His method is to rotate the pill in the 
lid of an ointment jar, previously coated with a thin 
layer of the solution. Then pour them into a second 
lid and rotate to remove excess of solution. They 
are then transferred to a third lid previously rubbed 
with oil, and rotated until dry. Repeat the operation if 
necessary, but remember that only a thin coating is 
desired. 



320 PILULM. PILLS 

Sugar Coating. — Sugar coating is best applied to the 
coating of pills in large quantities, but a good extem- 
poraneous coating may be given at the prescription 
counter. Moisten the surface of the pills by rolling 
them on a filter paper saturated with mucilage of acacia. 
Then place them in a round box, or, better still, in a 
hollow sphere (Figs. 138 and 139), containing a mixture 
of starch, one part; acacia, one part; sugar of milk, five 

Fig. 138 Fig. 139 




Pill coater closed. Pill coater open. 

parts, and rotate briskly. Generally this is sufficient, 
but should a heavier coat be desired the operation may 
be repeated. Or a finer appearance may be produced 
by using talcum in place of sugar, especially for the 
second coating. A pearl coating is made in a similar 
manner by talcum alone. Finely powdered elm bark 
may be used in place of sugar. It makes a good coating 
and at the same time a pill that is easily swallowed. 
Gold and silver leaf have also been used. Very good 



ENTERIC PILLS 321 

results may be obtained by the similar use of powdered 
aluminum. 

Enteric Pills. — Enteric pills are those which do not 
dissolve in the acid fluids of the stomach but are soluble 
in the alkaline fluids of the intestines. This is desirable 
for medicines which interfere with digestion or irritate 
the stomach, or when it is desirable to have the medicine 
act directly upon the bowels. In order to prevent solu- 
tion of the pills in the stomach, they were formerly 
coated with keratin, a substance prepared from horn, 
hoof, etc. (See National Formulary, "Pill Coating.") 
Salol answers the same purpose and is far more con- 
venient. The pills may be easily coated by impaling 
them on pin points and dipping them for an instant in 
melted salol. The salol quickly cools, after which the 
pin may be withdrawn and the whole closed by touching 
it with the head of a pin previously warmed in the flame 
of a burner, or by applying a little of the melted salol. 
Some recommend an ether solution of salol applied in the 
same manner as in coating with tolu. Mr. Dunning 
uses approximately one grain of salol for each three- 
grain pill, and directs that it be melted in an evaporating 
dish placed over a water bath. It is then removed from 
the bath and allowed to cool until the dish is barely 
warm to the hands. The pills are then added and 
rotated until cold. The operation is repeated two or 
three times, using only half as much salol each time, and 
the last time using only enough to coat the evaporating 
dish. Have the dish quite warm when the pills are 
added. Finally, transfer to a cold dish and rotate until 
the pills are cold. 
21 



322 



PILULE. PILLS 



Gelatin Coating. — Gelatin coating permits the phar- 
macist to produce a uniformly and perfectly coated pill 
within a brief time and at slight expense. Various 
solutions of gelatin have been recommended. The 
following formula by Prof. Patch gives good results : 

Best French gelatin, 70 Gm. Macerate in 206 Cc. 
of distilled water until soft, then dissolve over a water 
bath. Add 7.5 Gm. of boric acid and 60 Cc. of mucilage 
of acacia. When the acid is dissolved, strain the mixture 
and keep closely covered. When ready to use, the mass 

Fig. 140 



A 








i 


» < 


I 9 • ' 




J 


'/ 1 


"/ ] 


Y y 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ / / / 


/ 




i 


► < 


> ( 


► 












/ 




/ 



Box with pins for holding the pills while drying. 

is melted over a water bath. The pills are impaled on 
the points of pins and dipped just deep enough into the 
solution to cover the pills. Upon removing them from 
the liquid they should be held a moment to allow the 
surplus solution to settle, when it can be removed by 
touching the pill to the side of the vessel or to the surface 
of the liquid. Then rotate the pills in the air for a few 
minutes until the gelatin cools. This prevents the coat- 
ing from thickening on one side. The coating should 
then be allowed to dry by pressing the pin into a slit 
made in the edge of an open pasteboard box (Fig. 140). 



PILL COATERS 



323 



When they are no longer sticky the pills may be 
removed from the pins and the gelatin that surrounded 
the pins also removed with scissors, or, if allowed to 
become perfectly dry, may be broken off by agitating 
in a bottle. 

Keep the solution at a temperature of about 75° C, 
and just before the pills are dipped remove the scum 
which forms upon the surface. Glycerin used as an 
excipient is apt to soften the coating. If the mass be 
not very firm the contraction of the gelatin coating may, 
upon drying, force part of the mass out of the opening 
made by the pin. 

Pill Coaters. — A number of very convenient pill 
coaters may be obtained. The principle and method of 



Fig. 141 




Prof. Patch's gelatin coater. 



324 PILULM. PILLS 

use is the same in all, but the technique differs. The 
best are Wells' Porcupine, Franciscus', Maynard's, and 
Patch's. Each coater is accompanied by complete 
directions. Fig. 141 illustrates Patch's coater and the 
method of keeping the pills in motion while cooling and 
drying. There are several large coating machines which 
render the use of pins unnecessary. The pills are held on 
the end of a small tube by an exhaust pump. One side 
is coated then rapidly dried, when the other side is 
similarly treated. 

Capsules. — Many disagreeable tasting medicines are 
dispensed in capsules instead of in the form of coated 
pills. The capsules are prepared from gelatin and 
glycerin. By varying the amount of glycerin the manu- 
facturer is able to make either hard or soft capsules. 
Hard capsules consist of two small cups: one long, to 
contain the medicine, and the other shorter, to serve as 
a cover. Medicines having a disagreeable flavor are 
usually dispensed in the form of coated pills or wafers, 
or in capsules. Capsules may be filled with the dry 
substance or it may be made into a mass. Medicinal 
substances generally occupy less space when massed 
than when dry; consequently, a small capsule may be 
used. This is an advantage to the patient who has 
difficulty in swallowing large capsules, and will usually 
meet with the approval of the best physicians. To form 
the mass, proceed as in the manufacture of pills, only the 
mass need not be so firm, and each pill should be rolled 
into cylinders long enough to be easily introduced into 
the shell. When the mass has been divided and shaped 
the fingers should then be washed and dried. The 



CAPSULES 325 

capsule is then taken between the thumb and finger of 
one hand and the cover removed by taking it between the 
upper part of the thumb and forefinger of the other 
hand. The cylinder is grasped by the lower part of the 
thumb and the second finger and placed within the 
shell, and the cover returned. This prevents the medici- 
nal substance from coming in contact with the outside 
of the capsule. Another excellent method is to pick up 
the cylinder with a pin so that it does not come in con- 
tact with the fingers. It should be remembered that the 
object of the capsule is to conceal the taste of the medi- 
cine, and this is not accomplished should part of the 
medicine be on the outside of the capsule. In some 
cases it may be desirable to fill the capsules with the 
medicine in powdered form. In this case the medicine 
is prepared and divided into doses and then put into the 
capsules. For this purpose the fingers should be per- 
fectly dry, and the capsule taken between the thumb 
and finger of one hand and the cover in the other. They 
are then repeatedly shoved through the powder until it 
is all scooped up, or, if the powder packs easily, the 
capsules may be filled by pressing them down upon the 
powder until it is all taken up. A still better method is 
to use one of the numerous capsule fillers, as the East- 
man combined capsule filler and divider or the Rem- 
ington (Fig. 142). These are made with holders of 
different sizes for the different-sized capsules. The 
long shell is placed in the holder and then under the 
hopper and the powder packed in with a small plunger. 
Fig. 143 shows the Acme Capsule Filler. The holder is 
of wood with grooves intersecting the openings for the 



326 



PILULES. PILLS 



capsules. When the block is shoved along in its metallic 
case the capsule is raised so that the cover may be put 
on and it may be easily removed from the filler. Dry- 
filled capsules are apt to leave particles of the medicine 
adhering, and should be thoroughly wiped with a dry 



Fig. 142 




Remington capsule machine. 



cloth or washed with alcohol. They may also be 
cleaned by shaking with washed sand. Remington's 
capsule cleaner is very convenient for this purpose. It 
consists of a closed tin box containing a coarse sieve. 
The capsules are placed in the box with some clean 



CAPSULES 



327 



sand, which is then inverted and shaken. Upon placing 
it in an upright position the sand passes through the 
sieve, leaving the capsules clean. Hard capsules may 
also be used for dispensing alcoholic or oily liquids. 



Fig. 143 




Acme capsule filler. 

Such capsules may be filled with a medicine dropper or 
pipette, and then sealed by dipping the end of the cover 
in a little water, spread on a pill tile or glass plate. 
When the cover is put on the water softens the gelatin 
so that the joint will be sealed. 



328 PILULM. PILLS 

Soft Capsules. — Soft capsules are made especially for 
liquids. They are uniform, having an elongated neck 
to assist in filling. The neck is removed with a pair of 
scissors and the liquid introduced with a medicine 
dropper, pipette, or burette, care being exercised to 
prevent the liquid from coming in contact with the out- 
side of the capsule. After filling, they are sealed by just 
touching the opening with the side of a rod previously 
dipped in a melted mass of gelatin, 3 Gm. ; water, 5 Cc. ; 
and glycerin, 2 Gm. Keep them in an upright position 
while filling and sealing. To do this place in sockets 
formed by drilling holes in a block of wood, or by forcing 
holes through a pasteboard box with a pencil. 



CHAPTEE XLI. 

TABELL.E. TABLETS. 

Tablets are not recognized by the Pharmacopoeia or 
National Formulary, but two kinds are found upon the 
market, viz., Compressed Tablets and Tablet Triturates. 

Compressed Tablets. — Compressed tablets are formed 
by forcing the dry granulated substance into lenticular- 
shaped disks under high pressure. The best results are 
obtained only when the granules are of uniform size, 
about No. 20 usually preferred. Many soluble sub- 
stances, like ammonium chloride, potassium chlorate, 
etc., may be obtained on the market in uniform granular 
powder which needs no further preparation. Or they 
may be granulated by evaporating a concentrated 
solution to dryness, stirring constantly (see " Granula- 
tion/ ' p. 90), and when dry, crushing the coarser 
particles and passing them through a sieve. Other 
crystalline salts may be ground in a mill and by careful 
sifting obtained in the proper degree of fineness. Other 
substances must be especially treated. They should 
first be finely powdered, then moistened with a suitable 
excipient, whose character will depend upon the nature 
of the material. Water, diluted alcohol, syrup, and 
glucose are sometimes used. Syrup is doubtless the 
most general excipient, as it furnishes not only the 
moistener, but also the necessary adhesiveness. Sugar 



330 TABELLM. TABLETS 

is frequently mixed with the substance before granu- 
lating. Substances which contain gum or are naturally 
adhesive may be moistened with water or diluted 
alcohol. The latter is usually preferred, as it does not 
act so rapidly and may be more evenly distributed 
throughout the mixture. For this purpose an atomizer 
will be found very convenient. For resinous drugs 
alcohol may be used. Most insoluble substances should 
be mixed with 0.1 per cent, of sugar and moistened with 
syrup, but when very light and bulky, like magnesia or 
charcoal, 25 per cent, of sugar will be necessary and the 
granules must be much finer. Extracts should be dis- 
solved and mixed with sugar or used to moisten other 
constituents with which they may be ordered. Tinc- 
tures and fluidextracts may be concentrated and used in 
the same manner. Volatile oils when used with other 
materials should be added after granulation. Effer- 
vescing tablets should be prepared by granulating the 
acid and alkalies separately, and uniformly mixing. 
Incompatibles should also be granulated separately. 

Granulation. — The substance to be granulated should 
be placed in a mortar and lightly triturated, with the 
excipient slowly added, until the mixture is uniformly 
moist and slightly adhesive. The mixture is then forced 
through a No. 20 sieve, collected on sheets of paper, and 
dried at a low temperature. Substances like salol, which 
have low melting points, should be dried in warm air 
without heat. After drying, the mixture should again 
be passed through the sieve. Substances which, when 
moist, act upon a sieve or form a tough mass, should be 
carefully moistened and dried. They are then ' run 



LUBRICANTS 331 

through a mill or powdered in a mortar, sifting fre- 
quently to remove the particles as soon as they are small 
enough to pass through the sieve. Insoluble substances 
like salol, when granulated and compressed without the 
addition of any foreign substance, form tablets that do 
not disintegrate and will pass through the alimentary 
tract without action. To overcome this difficulty it is 
recommended to use about 20 per cent, of freshly dried 
starch or powdered arrow root, which must be added 
just before compressing. If a lubricant be needed, it 
should be added before the starch. If the starch has 
previously absorbed moisture, it will not expand and 
cause the tablet to disintegrate when placed in water. 

Hypodermic Tablets. — Hypodermic tablets are made 
with pure cane sugar and granulated with alcohol or 
with sodium sulphate or chloride. If lubrication be 
necessary, 1 per cent, of boric acid may be used. 

Lubricants. — It is important that the granulated sub- 
stance should flow uniformly and evenly into the mould, 
otherwise the size *of the tablet will vary. This is 
accomplished by the addition of some lubricant, as 
talcum, boric acid, lycopodium, starch, petrolatum, or 
cacao butter. Lubricants also help to keep the tablets 
from adhering to the moulds. 

Talcum is a good lubricant, but owing to its insoluble 
character it should be used as sparingly as possible. 
Not more than 3 per cent, should be used. It should 
never be used for tablets expected to form a clear solu- 
tion when dissolved. 

Lycopodium has no advantage over talc, and cannot 
be used except for colored tablets. Boric acid is gener- 



332 TABELLJE. TABLETS 

ally used for hypodermic tablets and for those intended 
to form a clear solution. Not more than 2 per cent, 
should be used. 

Petrolatum or liquid petrolatum is a good lubricant 
and may be used in the proportion of about 1 per cent. 
It is best applied with an atomizer, using a 25 per cent, 
solution in ether. The powder should be stirred fre- 
quently to insure an even distribution of the oil, and the 
ether allowed to evaporate. In difficult cases it is better 
to use both talc and petrolatum than to use an excess of 
either. 

Cacao butter is used as combined granulator and lubri- 
cator in the proportion of one ounce of cacao butter to 
six ounces each of ether and alcohol. 

Compressors or Tablet Machines. — Fig. 144 illustrates 
a simple compressor intended only for small quantities 
at the prescription counter. The cylinder is placed over 
the base and the amount of granulated substance 
required for a single tablet is poured into the cylinder, 
the piston introduced and compressed by a sharp blow 
with a wooden mallet. On removing the base and 
giving a gentle tap the tablet is expelled. The same 
principle is used in several cheap machines, in which the 
compression is applied with a lever. One of the best 
of this type is the Freck Tablet Compressor. It has an 
automatic feeder and tablet ejector. The pressure may 
be adjusted so that the tablets will be of uniform thick- 
ness. By using interchangeable moulds and piston, 
tablets of different diameters may be made. Two 
pistons are supplied with each cylinder; the upper for 
compressing the tablet and the lower to expel the 



COMPRESSORS OR TABLET MACHINES 333 



finished tablet. The weight of the tablet is regulated by 
raising or lowering the lower piston, which increases or 
decreases the capacity of the cylinder. Raising the 
upper piston decreases the pressure, and lowering it 
increases the pressure. What has been said of the 



Fig. 144 



Fig. 145 







Tablet compressor. 



The Eureka tablet machine. 



Freck Compressor also applies to the Eureka Tablet 
Machine (Fig. 145), which makes a tablet with each 
revolution of the wheel, and when properly adjusted, 
from seventy-five to one hundred tablets may be made 
in a minute. Complete directions accompany each 
machine, so that a detailed description is unnecessary. 



334 TABELLM. TABLETS 

Tablet Triturates.— In 1878 Dr. R. M. Fuller prepared 
tablets from triturates; hence the name, "Tablet Trit- 
urate." Triturates are prepared by triturating the 
active ingredient with some diluent. Formerly sugar 
of milk was used entirely, but now cane sugar is some- 
times substituted, and many prefer a mixture of the two 
in the proportion of one part of cane sugar to five parts 
of sugar of milk. When preparing a triturate of sub- 
stances like potassium permanganate and silver com- 
pounds, kaolin or prepared chalk should be used as a 
diluent. In any case the active ingredient when solid 
should be triturated with an equal bulk of the diluent 
until uniformly mixed, then the remainder gradually 
added. After this pass through a No. 120 sieve. 

Tinctures when in small amounts may be used as 
moistening agents. Otherwise, they should be mixed 
with part of the sugar of milk and then evaporated to 
dryness at a low temperature, and powdered before 
adding the remainder of the diluent. Extracts may be 
triturated with sufficient sugar of milk to form a uniform 
powder and the remainder of the diluent added, or they 
may be dissolved in some solvent, preferably as strongly 
alcoholic as possible, and then treated similarly to tinc- 
tures. To make into tablets, the triturate is moistened 
with some liquid, if possible one in which the triturate 
is only sparingly soluble. The amount of moistening 
agent to be used will vary with the character of the 
tablet mixture and the nature of the liquid used. Water, 
absolute alcohol, chloroform, and mixtures of these in 
varying proportions are used for very deliquescent sub- 
stances, but these are not usually made into tablets. 



MOULDING 335 

From 75 per cent, to 85 per cent, of alcohol will be found 
to give the best results in most cases. Stronger alcohol 
will be required for those containing cane sugar than for 
those containing only sugar of milk, as the former is 
much more soluble than the latter. If too damp, moist- 
ure will show on the surface of the tablet when filling 
the mould, and the tablet will be too hard when dry. 
If the mixture be not moist enough, the tablet does not 
retain its form under ordinary conditions. The mixture 
should not be damp enough to form a plastic mass, but 
only sufficient to form an adhesive mass when lightly 
pressed. If the alcohol be too strong, the tablet will be 
friable; if too weak, it must be cautiously added or the 
tablet will be too hard. When a large number of tablets 
are to be prepared, it is advisable to moisten the mixture 
in small quantities as required, or to keep the moistened 
mixture covered with a damp cloth. Otherwise, the 
mixture will dry^out and the tablets will not be uniform 
in weight or hardness. 

Moulding. — Fig. 146 illustrates the form of mould in 
general use. The upper plate is placed on a smooth 
surface, preferably of glass, and the dampened mass is 
pressed into the moulds with a broad horn or hard 
rubber spatula, shaped like a putty knife. When the 
openings are filled and the surface smoothed, the mould 
is inverted and the other side treated in a similar man- 
ner, if necessary. A little finely powdered sugar of milk 
is then brushed over the surface of the tablets. The 
mould is then placed over the plate bearing the pegs, in 
such a manner that the numbered or marked ends are 
together and the large holes in the upper plate are over 



330 



TABELLM. TABLETS 



the guide pins of the lower plate. When the plates are 
pressed together the tablets will be forced out of the 
mould and remain on the ends of the pegs. In a few 
minutes the mould may be turned over, when the tablets 
will fall off or may be removed with a soft brush. 
Tablets should be dried in warm air or at ordinary 
room temperature, on a sieve or cheese cloth stretched 
on a frame and protected from dust. To accurately 
adjust the dose in each tablet it is necessary to know the 
amount of diluent to be added to the medicament to 

Fig. 146 








Hard rubber tablet mould. 



make the required number of tablets. This must be 
determined experimentally, and each experiment should 
be carefully recorded for future use. First, prepare a 
few tablets, using the diluent only, after which dry and 
weigh them. Then measure the volume of the required 
weight of the medicament, and reserve an equal volume 
of the diluent from the amount required to make the 
given number of tablets. Mix the medicament with the 
remaining diluent and fill the moulds. Should the 
mixture be insufficient, more of the reserve diluent must 
be added. If the mixture more than fills the moulds, 



HYPODERMIC TABLETS 337 

the excess must be dried, weighed, and, with the reserve 
mixture, deducted from the original amount. After a 
few experiments it will be found quite easy to accurately 
construct a formula. However, it should be remembered 
that equal volumes of different dry substances do not 
occupy equal spaces on moistening. Tablets — when 
dried, powdered, again moistened, and put into moulds 
usually occupy less space than before. Varying the 
amount of moisture and pressure will cause a corre- 
sponding variation in the weight of the tablets. 

Tablet Saturates. — Tablet saturates are blank tablets 
of sugar of milk or a mixture of cane sugar and sugar of 
milk. They are medicated when wanted by saturating 
them with an alcoholic preparation, such as a fluid- 
extract or tincture, which may be applied by dropping the 
required dose on each tablet, or by pouring the alcoholic 
solution over the tablets and decanting the surplus. 
With the latter method the dose is regulated by determin- 
ing the amount absorbed by the tablet and concentrat- 
ing, or diluting the alcoholic preparation accordingly. 

Hypodermic Tablets. — Hypodermic tablets are small 
tablet triturates about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. 
Diluents can be pure sugar of milk or cane sugar, though 
some use sodium sulphate or chloride. 

Lamels are small medicated, glycerinated gelatin 
disks to be placed beneath the eyelid, and are sometimes 
used in the preparation of hypodermic solutions. 

Orbicules are small sugar disks flat on the one side and 
convex upon the other. They are medicated by satu- 
rating them with a solution of the medicinal substance, 
like homeopathic pellets. 
22 



CHAPTEE XLII. 

TROCHES AND CONFECTIONS. 
TROCHISCI. TROCHES. 

Troches, or lozenges, are solid flat masses, either 
round, oval, octagonal, square, or diamond-shaped, and 
some are cylindrical. They are usually intended for 
local application, and should be slowly dissolved in the 
mouth without mastication. The medicinal ingredients 
are uniformly mixed with sugar and acacia or traga- 
canth, and formed into a mass with water, syrup, or 
honey. Sometimes the gum is added in the form of a 
mucilage. The solubility of the lozenge is largely con- 
trolled by the amount and kind of gum used. They are 
less soluble when made with acacia than with traga- 
canth. About 25 per cent, of acacia is required, or 3 
per cent, of tragacanth. Only the finest confectioner's 
sugar should be used. For small quantities the mass is 
formed in a mortar, similarly to the formation of a pill 
mass, except that the mass should be softer. It must be 
thoroughly kneaded after each addition of excipient, 
otherwise it will become too soft. When the mass is 
properly formed, it is weighed and placed upon a tile 
or troche board, previously dusted with powdered 
starch, sugar, or sugar of milk, and, with a cylindrical 
roller, rolled out to such thickness that the weight of one 
of the cut troches will equal the weight of the mass, 
divided by the required number of troches. The thick- 



TROCHISCI. TROCHES 339 

ness of the mass can be easily regulated and made 
uniform by Proctor's lozenge board, with adjustable 
sides. Slocum's lozenge board regulates the thickness 
by means of wedge-shaped strips of wood sliding 
in grooves. In Harrison's lozenge board the sides 
are stationary, while the bed is raised or lowered by 
a thumb screw placed at the end. Lozenges may be 
cut into squares or cut diamond-shaped with an 
oiled knife or spatula. A large-sized cork borer fur- 
nishes the round form; also special lozenge cutters may 
be employed (Figs. 147, 148, 149). A convenient 
method is to roll and divide the mass like pills, and then 
with a dusted spatula flatten each section into the 
troche form. For this method the mass should be 
rather soft; if not, the troches will crack around the 
edges. Another method is to place each rounded 
troche in a short glass tube of the desired diameter, and 
press it into shape with a cork attached to the end of a 
pencil or rod. Troches should be dried in a warm dry 
atmosphere. If the temperature be too high they will 
melt. Those containing volatile constituents are best 
dried in a desiccator. 

Gelatin Lozenges or Pastiles. — The base for the gelatin 
lozenge consists of gelatin, glycerin, and water; occa- 
sionally of acacia. The proportions vary with the 
objects to be obtained. For a soft readily soluble 
pastile use gelatin, one part; glycerin and water, each, 
two and one-half parts. For a firm, less soluble pastile, 
use gelatin, five parts ; glycerin and water, each, six parts, 
and evaporate to fifteen parts; or gelatin, four parts; 
acacia, one part; glycerin, ten parts; and water, eight 



340 



TROCHES AND CONFECTIONS 



parts. The water is frequently replaced by some aro- 
matic water, and acid on fruit juices. The, gelatin is 
macerated with the water until thoroughly softened, 
after which the glycerin is added and the whole heated 
on a water bath until a clear solution is formed. The 



Fig. 147 



Fig. 148 



Fig. 149 





Plain tin lozenge 
cutter. 



Tin lozenge punch with 
steel cutter. 



Lozenge punch with 
spring. 



medicinal ingredients are then thoroughly mixed and 
the whole poured into suitable moulds, or, in the absence 
of moulds, the mass may be poured on to a greased 
plate, or into a thoroughly greased pasteboard box, and 
cut into the required number of lozenges. Substances 



CONFECTIONS. ELECTUARIES 341 

containing tannin or those incompatible with gelatin 
cannot be used. 

Chocolate Lozenges or Pastiles. — Chocolate lozenges 
are prepared by incorporating the powdered medicinal 
substance with 0.3 Gm. to 0.6 Gm. of sugar, some flavor- 
ing ingredient, and about 0.2 Gm. to 0.4 Gm. of chocolate. 
The whole is thoroughly mixed and heated on a water 
bath until a soft mass is formed. Then it is divided into 
the required number of lozenges, similarly to the method 
for gelatin lozenges. Lozenges of all sorts vary in weight 
from 0.3 Gm. to 1 Gm. 

Fumigating pastiles are small, cone-shaped bodies 
composed of balsams, spices, charcoal, etc. The 
material in powder is formed into a mass with mucilage 
of tragacanth and pressed into cones between the thumb 
and two fingers. When dry and ignited they should 
burn slowly without flame. 

Moxas are small cones intended for cauterization by 
burning. They are prepared similarly to fumigating 
pastiles and usually contain charcoal and potassium 
nitrate. 

CONFECTIONS. ELECTUARIES. 

These are a class of preparations that might well be 
discarded by American pharmacy, as they are seldom 
used. The medicinal substance is thoroughly incor- 
porated with honey or fruit pulp, and sometimes glycerin 
is added to prevent dryness. The Pharmacopeia 
recognizes two confections, namely, confection of rose, 
used principally as a pill excipient, and confection of 
senna, used as a mild laxative. 



CHAPTEK XLIII. 

GAUZE AND COTTON. 
CARBASUS. GAUZE. 

Medicated Gauze. — Fine cotton gauze similar to the 
best grades of cheese cloth is used for medicinal pur- 
poses. Medicated gauzes are usually prepared by 
plaster manufacturers. They are prepared by satu- 
rating gauze with a solution of the medicinal substance 
dissolved in some volatile solvent, accompanied by a 
little glycerin or fixed oil to prevent their becoming too 
dry. It is expressed to a given weight and the volatile 
liquid allowed to evaporate. 

GOSSYPIUM. COTTON. 

Medicated cotton is prepared similarly to medicated 
gauze, except that the absorbent cotton is employed 
instead of gauze. The styptic cotton of the National 
Formulary furnishes a good illustration of this class of 
preparation. Preserve them in tightly closed recep- 
tacles. The pyroxylin, colloxylin, or soluble gun cotton 
of the Pharmacopwia is an exception to the above class. 
It is formed by the action of nitric acid upon absorbent 
cotton in the presence of sulphuric acid, which serves to 



GOSSYPIUM. COTTON 343 

dilute the nitric acid and to take up the water liberated 
by the chemical action. When nitric acid acts upon 
cotton or cellulose, one of several products may be 
formed, depending upon the number of hydroxyl 
groups replaced by the nitric acid radical. The official 
pyroxylin consists chiefly of cellulose tetranitrate, 
C 12 H 16 (N0 3 ) 4 6 , corresponding with the reaction. 

Reaction : 
C 12 H 20 O 10 + 4HN0 3 = C 12 H 16 (N0 3 ) 4 6 + 4H 2 0. 

Cellulose. Nitric acid. Tetranitro cellulose. Water. 

(Pyroxylin.) 

It should be kept in cartons, as it decomposes more 
easily when kept in air-tight containers. It is used 
principally in the manufacture of collodion, for which 
see p. 257. 

Politzer plugs are small balls of greased cotton to be 
introduced into the ear for the exclusion of the air, 
especially after an operation. Also to keep out water 
while bathing. They are prepared by drawing a piece 
of thread through a small pledget of absorbent cotton 
and greasing the pledget with simple cerate. This is 
then wrapped with a thin layer of greased cotton and 
the operation repeated until the plug is sufficiently 
large to fill the meatus of the ear. The thread is left 
sufficiently long to enable the removal of the plug from 
the ear. 



CHAPTEK XLIV. 

ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY. 

Alkaloids are vegetable bases found in various parts 
of many plants. They contain nitrogen, and are called 
alkaloids because, like the alkalies, they are alkaline in 
reaction and are capable of uniting with acids to form 
salts. Their names end in ine with the Latin ina, which 
serves to distinguish them from neutral principles of 
plants ending in in with the Latin inum. The term 
alkaloid has also been applied to bases obtained from 
animal sources, but these when obtained from living 
animal tissue are now known as leucomaines. Those 
secured from dead tissue are called ptomaines. 

Most of the free alkaloids when pure exist as crystal- 
line or amorphous powder, especially those containing 
oxygen. A few alkaloids like coninine and nicotine are 
liquid and contain no oxygen. They are sometimes 
called volatile alkaloids because, when air is excluded, 
they can be volatilized or distilled without decom- 
position. These decompose easily when exposed to air, 
but are less easily decomposed when combined with 
acids. 

In plants the alkaloids are seldom free, but are con- 
fined with the natural acids of the plants. The presence 
of alkaloids in plants may be determined by separating 



ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 345 

the alkaloids by the shaking-out method, as given in the 
outline for the assay of alkaloids (p. 353). When the 
solvent is evaporated the residue is dissolved in acidu- 
lated water and tested with some of the alkaloidal 
reagents, which produce precipitates, from acid solu- 
tions. Those most commonly used are Mayer's reagent, 
which is the pharmacopceial solution of potassium 
mercuric iodide, and Wagner's reagent, a solution of 
iodine in potassium iodide. Dragendoneff's reagent 
is a solution of potassium and bismuth iodide, and 
Sonnenschein's reagent consists of phosphomolybdic 
acid. 

The passage of the "Food and Drugs Act" by 
the Federal Government, and the passage of a some- 
what similar law by nearly all of the States, has given 
pronounced importance to the pharmacopceial methods 
of assay. In quantitative analysis the student becomes 
thoroughly familiar with the inorganic assay methods, 
but not so with the organic or alkaloidal determinations. 
The Pharmacopoeia furnishes detailed methods for deter- 
mining the strengths of all important drugs for which 
reliable assay methods are known. These methods may 
be intelligently followed by anyone possessing a general 
knowledge of assay work. It is, therefore, unnecessary 
to treat each method individually, but rather to explain 
the general principles involved, and to place before the 
student such information as may enable him better to 
understand the changes and manipulations taking place. 
Since volumetric analysis plays an important part in 
drug assay work, a brief explanation seems advisable. 



346 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 



VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. 

Volumetric Solutions. — Volumetric analysis is the 
quantitative estimation of substances by means of solu- 
tions of known strength, the quantity of substance 
being determined by the volume of the standard solu- 
tion used. The strengths of volumetric solutions are 
based upon their combining power, compared with the 
valency of hydrogen. 

AgN0 3 + HC1 = AgCl + HN0 3 
168.68 36.18 142.29 62.59 

Thus, 36.18 parts of hydrochloric acid will unite with 
168.68 parts of silver nitrate. Therefore, if 36.18 Gm. 
of absolute hydrochloric acid are dissolved in a liter of 
water, and 168.68 Gm. of silver nitrate in another liter 
of water, and the two solutions are mixed, there will be 
just enough acid to precipitate all the silver. The same 
will be true if any number of cubic centimeters of one 
solution be mixed with an equal number of cubic centi- 
meters of the other solution. If one liter of a solution 
contains 36.18 Gm. of hydrochloric acid, each cubic 
centimeter would contain x|w or 0-03618 Gm., and 
would be equivalent to 0.16868 Gm. of silver nitrate, 
or to yoVo °f the combining weight, in grams, of any 
other substance with which it will unite, e. g., 0.0557 
Gm. of potassium hydroxide. 

A normal solution is one that contains the combining 
weight, expressed in grams, of the active reagent in 
one liter of the solution. The combining weight or 



VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS 347 

valency of a substance must not be confounded with 
the molecular weight. 

The Pharmacopoeia defines a normal solution, N/l, 
as one that contains in 1 liter the molecular weight of the 
active re-agent, expressed in grams, and reduced to 
the valency corresponding to one atom of replaceable 
hydrogen or its equivalent. 

Hydrochloric acid contains one atom of replaceable 
hydrogen. Sodium hydrate and sodium chloride each 
contain one atom of sodium capable of replacing one 
atom of hydrogen. Therefore, their normal solutions 
should contain respectively HC1, 36.18 Gm.; NaHO, 
39.75 Gm.; and NaCl, 58.06 Gm., in 1 liter. Sulphuric 
and oxalic acids each contain two atoms of replaceable 
hydrogen. Therefore, one liter of N/l H 2 S0 4 , mole- 
cular weight 97.34, should contain 48.67 Gm. One liter 
of N/l oxalic acid, H 2 C 2 4 .2H 2 0, molcular weight 
125.08, should contain 62.54 Gm. Two molecules of 
potassium permanganate in oxidation give off five atoms 
of oxygen, which are equivalent to ten atoms of hydrogen; 
therefore, one-fifth of one molecule of potassium per- 
manganate represents the number of grams for one liter 
of normal solution. 

Decinormal solutions are one-tenth the strength of 
normal, and are expressed as N/lO. Centinormal 
solutions are one-hundredth the strength of normal, and 
expressed as N/100. Seminormal solutions are one-half 
the strength of normal, and are expressed as N/2. The 



348 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

following strengths are sometimes used: Twice the 
strength of normal, 2/N. One-twentieth normal, N/20. 
One-fortieth normal, N/40. One-fiftieth normal, N/50. 

The Pharmacopoeia gives complete directions for the 
manufacture of volumetric solutions, and under each, 
a list of articles with the amount of each article that is 
equivalent to 1 Cc. of the volumetric solution. 

Many volumetric solutions change on standing. 
When this has occurred, instead of bringing them back 
to their original strength, many prefer to ascertain their 
strength and make the necessary correction each time 
they are used. 

Example. — On exposure to air a decinormal 
solution of potassium hydroxide has absorbed carbon 
dioxide until 10.5 Cc. of the solution are required to 
neutralize 10 Cc. of decinormal acid. Hence, correction 
must be made for each cubic centimeter of solution 
used. If 10.5 Cc. were required instead of 10, then 
1 Cc. of the solution is equal to T W> or 0.952 Cc. 
Since 1 Cc. of the solution is the equivalent of only 
0.952 of 1 Cc. of a standard solution, then whenever 
this solution is used, the number of cubic centimeters 
of the solution consumed must be multiplied by the 
factor 0.952. 

The volumetric estimation of alkaloids is based upon 
the fact that they unite with acid to form salts, and thus 
neutralize a definite amount of acid. The alkaloid is 
obtained as pure as possible and dissolved in an excess 
of standard acid, and the excess of acid determined by 
titration with a standard alkali, using hematoxylin, 
cochineal, or iodeosin as indicator. The difference 



VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS 349 

between the standard acid taken and the standard alkali 
used represents the amount of acid combined with the 
alkaloid. Most alkaloids that are estimated volumetri- 
cally are monobasic; therefore, 1 Cc. of decinormal 
acid is equivalent to 0.0001 of the molecular weight of 
the alkaloid expressed in grams. 

The molecular weight of morphine is 300.92, which 
divided by 10,000 gives 0.030092, the amount of 
morphine capable of neutralizing or combining with 
1 Cc. of decinormal acid. In case the alkaloid is dibasic 
the molecular weight should be divided by two and 
then by 10,000 to obtain the equivalent of 1 Cc. of acid. 

Indicators. — Various indicators have been recom- 
mended for alkaloidal titration, but it is necessary to 
consider only those which have been most frequently 
used. Phenolphthalein cannot be used, as it is unaf- 
fected by free alkaloid. It is directed that iodeosin be 
used in the assay of nux vomica. It is colorless in acid 
solutions and rose in alkaline solutions. When iodeosin 
is used the method of manipulation is as follows : 

Place the acid solution of the alkaloid in a flask or 
bottle, the volume of the solution being about 80 Cc. 
Add 20 Cc. of ether and five drops of the indicator. 
Then add N/50 alkaline solution, 1 Cc. at a time, 
shaking after each addition until the aqueous solution 
becomes rose colored. Next add 0.5 Cc. of N/10 acid, 
and again add N/50 alkali, -^ Cc. at a time, until the 
solution becomes again rose-colored. The principal 
objection to iodeosin is that it is difficult to obtain 
it in good quality, and, furthermore, the solution does 
not keep well. 



350 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

Hematoxylin. — The color of hematoxylin varies from 
yellow to orange in acid solutions, and from violet to 
purple in alkaline solutions. In this case an old solution 
affords better results than a fresh one. However, the 
end reaction varies with different alkaloids and has not 
proved as satisfactory as with cochineal, whose color is 
yellowish red in acid solutions, and violet in alkaline 
solutions. The change is not very pronounced, but with 
a little practice there is no difficulty in noting the end 
reaction, and it is preferred by nearly all chemists. 

Too great care cannot be exercised in the preparation 
of standard solutions, for the slightest error here is 
marvellously magnified in the final result. The Phar- 
macopeia directs that the normal and decinormal potas- 
sium hydroxide solution be prepared by titration against 
pure potassium bitartrate, using phenolphthalein as an 
indicator. (See U. S. P., p. 552.) Many pharmacists 
prefer to use pure oxalic acid instead of potassium 
bitartrate with phenolphthalein as indicator. 

The principal objection to both of these methods is 
that phenolphthalein must be used as indicator, but can- 
not be used in alkaloidal titration, as it is not affected 
by alkaloids. Since different results are obtained by 
using different indicators, it is important that the indi- 
cator to be used in the determination should be the same 
as was used in the preparation of the standard solutions. 
After the standard alkaline solution is prepared the 
standard acid solution is prepared according to the 
method given on p. 566 of the Pharmacopeia. Another 
method for the preparation of standard solutions is to 
prepare first an approximate solution of hydrochloric 



VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS 351 

acid. Then accurately determine the strength gravi- 
metrically by precipitating a portion of it with an excess 
of silver nitrate, collecting the precipitate, washing, 
drying, igniting, and weighing in the usual manner. 
From the results, calculate the amount of acid in the 
solution and dilute to the required strength. This 
standard hydrochloric acid solution is then used to 
prepare a standard alkaline solution. 

The author prefers to prepare approximate standard 
solutions by either of the first two methods, after which 
accurately standardize the acid solution by the titration 
of a pure crystallized alkaloid. 

Example. — Each cubic centimeter of the approximate 
N/10 acid solution is found to be equivalent to 4.5 Cc. 
of N/50 potassium hydroxide. Then 300.9 mg. of pure 
crystallized morphine is accurately weighed and dis- 
solved in 15 Cc. of the acid solution, and diluted to 100 
Cc. To 50 Cc. of this solution containing 7.5 Cc. of the 
acid solution and 150.45 mg. of morphine, add five drops 
cochineal solution, titrate with the approximate potas- 
sium hydroxide solution. If 13.5 Cc. of N/50 potassium 
hydroxide solution be required to neutralize the free 
acid, and 4.5 Cc. be equivalent to each cubic centimeter 
of acid, then 13.5 -£■ 4.5 = the number of cubic centi- 
meters of free acid in the 50 Cc. taken, or 13.5 -f- 4.5 
= 3. Since the 50 Cc. taken contained 7.5 Cc. of acid 
solution, then 7.5 — 3 = 4.5, the number of cubic 
centimeters of acid that must have been combined with 
the 150.45 mg. of morphine. Had the solution been 
strictly decinormal, it should have required 5 Cc, since 
1 Cc. of decinormal acid is equal to 30.09 mg. of mor- 



352 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

phine. Consequently, the approximate solution is too 
strong, and each 4.5 Cc. must be diluted to 5 Cc. If we 
have 900 Cc. of the approximate solution, it must be 
diluted to \°-§ + 5 = 1000. The approximate alkaline 
solution may now be standardized so that 5 Cc. is 
required to neutralize each cubic centimeter of deci- 
normal acid, or, the factor may be determined and a 
correction made each time. The N/50 alkali is used to 
more accurately obtain the end reaction. The beginner 
should prepare his own standard solution and experi- 
ment with solutions containing known quantities of 
alkaloid until he is familiar with the end reaction, and 
is able to obtain accurate results. 

Alkaloids are associated with various complex sub- 
stances from which they must be separated before they 
can be obtained in a sufficiently pure condition for 
estimation. In this separation we take advantage of the 
fact that certain solvents do not mix with water and are 
called immiscible solvents. They are ether, chloroform, 
benzene, petroleum benzin, and amyl alcohol. The 
first two are most frequently used. The salts of nearly 
all alkaloids are soluble in water, but practically insol- 
uble in the immiscible solvents. The free alkaloids are 
soluble in the immiscible solvents, but practically insol- 
uble in water. Alcohol occupies an intermediate place, 
being miscible with water and also with the immiscible 
solvents. It is a solvent for the free alkaloids and also 
for many of their salts. The above facts form the basis 
of nearly all alkaloidal assay. The method may be 
outlined briefly as follows: 



ASSAY METHODS 353 

ASSAY METHODS. 

Two methods are used for the extraction of alkaloids 
from drugs. In the first, 10 Gm. of the drug in fine 
powder are usually taken and completely exhausted, 
either by maceration and percolation or by maceration 
and agitation for several hours with the solvent, after 
which the residue is filtered and washed. The second 
method is to take 15 or 20 Gm. of the drug and agitate 
for three or four hours with 150 or 200 Cc. of the solvent. 
Then take such an aliquot part of the liquid as will 
represent 5 or 10 Gm. of the drug. If the fine particles 
do not settle readily, 5 or 10 Cc. of water added to the 
liquid and shaken vigorously will cause the particles to 
agglutinate and leave the liquid perfectly clear. The 
solvent used in most cases consists of chloroform or ether, 
or a mixture of the two, with some alkali to liberate the 
alkaloid. Ammonium hydroxide is generally used, as 
fixed alkalies are apt to decompose some of the more 
sensitive alkaloids. The liquid obtained by one or the 
other of the above methods is received in a separator, 
10 or 15 Cc. of water added, and a piece of litmus paper 
placed upon the surface. Then sufficient acid is added 
until a slight acid reaction is obtained. The whole is 
then gently shaken for two or three minutes and allowed 
to stand until the liquid separates into two layers. If the 
immiscible solvent used be heavier than water, like 
chloroform, it will be found at the bottom; if lighter, 
like ether, it will float upon the surface, in which case 
the aqueous solution may be easily drawn off. The 
immiscible solvent should then be washed with several 
23 



354 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

portions of water to insure the complete removal of the 
alkaloidal salt. In case the immiscible solvent is heavy, 
so that it descends to the bottom of the separator, it 
must be drawn off into a second separator and the 
aqueous solution drawn into a beaker. The immiscible 
solvent in the separator may now be washed with water 
and separated as before. When shaking out alkaloids 
by means of immiscible solvents the operator must be 
certain that the alkaloid is completely removed from the 
solution before it is discarded. This is best accom- 
plished by placing a small quantity of the liquid in a test 
tube and acidulating, if the solution be not already 
acid. Apply heat to remove any alcohol, ether, or 
chloroform that may be present, after which add a 
few drops of mercuric potassium iodide, test solution. 
If cloudiness appears it will indicate that the alkaloid 
is not all removed. Most of the extractive and coloring 
matter will be retained by the immiscible solvent, while 
the alkaloid in the form of a salt will be removed by the 
water. The alkaloid is further purified by placing the 
acid solution in a separator, adding a fresh portion of 
the immiscible solvent and ammonia to alkaline reac- 
tion, shaking and separating the two solutions and 
washing the aqueous solution with several portions of 
the immiscible solvent. The solvent is then removed by 
evaporation. If the solvent contain ether it may be 
evaporated by placing it over a vessel containing hot 
water. Chloroform may be evaporated over a water 
bath, in which case care may be taken to prevent loss of 
the residue by decrepitation. The best preventive is the 
addition of a few drops of amyl alcohol to the residue 



ASSAY METHODS 355 

before it is entirely dry. The last traces of chloroform 
are sometimes difficult of removal, but may be hastened 
by the addition of a little ether. The residue may be 
weighed, or it may be dissolved in a definite quantity of 
N/lO acid and the excess of acid titrated with N/50 
alkali. The number of cubic centimeters of N/50 alkali 
used divided by five to reduce it to decinormal, and the 
quotient subtracted from the number of cubic centi- 
meters of decinormal acid taken, will give the number 
of cubic centimeters neutralized by the alkaloid. This 
multiplied by yo-^-q-q of the molecular weight of the 
alkaloid will give the weight of alkaloid in the amount 
of drug taken. If 10 Gm. of drug were taken then the 
result must be multiplied by ten to obtain the percentage 
of alkaloid in the drug. (For details of method, see 
"Aconite" or "Belladonna.") Avoid violent agitation 
when shaking the separator, as it is apt to form an 
emulsion difficult to separate. A rotary motion helps 
to avoid this. If the emulsion does not separate upon 
standing it may be necessary to warm the mixture or 
possibly to evaporate the immiscible solvent and to 
begin the operation again. Another method directs 
that the whole be filtered through a tube, 2 cm. wide 
and 8 or 10 cm. long, filled with absorbent cotton. 
Sometimes a partial emulsion forms between the two 
liquids, which interferes with complete separation. This 
may frequently be broken by placing a tuft of cotton in 
the solution which may be carefully moved about in the 
emulsion and pressed into the bottom of the separator, 
so that the liquid must filter through it when it is drawn 
off. This operation is accomplished by the use of 



356 



ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 



a fine-pointed glass tube curved in the form of a 
hook. 

Fluidextracts and tinctures are sometimes evaporated 
to remove the alcohol, then taken up with acidulated 
water and filtered into a separator containing some 
immiscible solvent together with ammonia. The re- 
mainder of the method corresponds with that outlined 
above. In other cases the fluidextract is placed directly 

Fig. 150 




Apparatus for evaporation of volatile solvents. 



in a separator and shaken out with immiscible solvents, 
after making alkaline with ammonia. 

Extracts are usually dissolved in some solvent in which 
they are readily soluble and then treated similarly to 
fluidextracts. The method for the assay of the prepa- 
rations of a drug is with slight modifications similar to 
that used for the drug. Hence, special comments are 
unnecessary. 



PHARMACOPCEIAL ASSAY METHODS 357 

For the evaporation of immiscible solvents in alka- 
loidal assay work, W. H. Blome uses an apparatus 
similar to Fig. 150. The current of air being drawn 
over the surface of the solvent causes it to evaporate 
rapidly. The cotton filters the air, thus keeping out 
the dust. 



PHARMACOPCEIAL ASSAY METHODS. 

For the purposes of comparison and study of the 
pharmacopceial assay methods for different drugs, the 
greater number can be divided into two groups. How- 
ever, there are a few drugs which it is necessary to con- 
sider individually. The first group contains belladonna, 
hyoscyamus, stramonium, scopola, coca, and pitocupus. 
The powdered drug is macerated with the immiscible 
solvent made alkaline with ammonium hydroxide and 
percolated until exhausted. The solvent containing the 
free alkaloid is shaken out with water acidulated with 
sulphuric acid. The aqueous solution containing the 
alkaloid as a sulphate is made alkaline and shaken out 
with the immiscible solvent. The solvent is evaporated 
and the residue dissolved in a definite quantity of N 10 
acid, afterward being titrated with N/50 potassium 
hydroxide. 

The second group contains guarana, Hydrastis, 
ipecac, and physostigma. The drug is shaken for a 
given time with the alkaline immiscible solvent and an 
aliquot part of the clear liquid taken. This represents a 
definite quantity of the drug. The remainder of the 



358 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

method is the same as the preceding, except that the 
residues from Hydrastis and guarana are weighed in 
place of titrated. 

The principal alkaloids of hydrastis are hydrastine 
and berberine. The latter is excluded by the Pharma- 
copceial method enployed for this drug, as the free 
alkaloid is practically insoluble in ether, and its salts are 
but sparingly soluble in water. In the case of the fluid- 
extract a little potassium iodide is added before adding 
the alkali. This precipitates the berberine as a hydro- 
iodide, which is removed by filtration. 

Aconite. — Aconite is exhausted by maceration and 
percolation with a mixture of alcohol and water. The 
percolate is evaporated in a broad evaporating dish at a 
temperature not exceeding 60° C. The residue is dis- 
solved in sulphuric acid rendered alkaline with ammo- 
nium hydroxide, and shaken out with ether. The ether 
is evaporated and the residue dissolved in a definite 
quantity of N/10 acid and titrated. The original 
method of the author directed the addition of 5 Gm. of 
powdered pumice stone to the liquid before evaporation. 
It is unfortunate that this was omitted from the process, 
as it aids solution and filtration. Aconitine is easily 
decomposed by heat, especially in aqueous solutions. 
For this reason the temperature of 60° C. should not be 
exceeded. 

Conium. — The drug is shaken with a mixture of ether, 
alcohol, and ammonium hydroxide. An aliquot part of 
the liquid is acidulated and evaporated, the residue being 
allowed to stand until the ammonium sulphate separates. 
It is then filtered and the filter washed with alcohol, after 



PHARMACOPCEIAL ASSAY METHODS 359 

which the alcohol is evaporated to a small volume. Then 
the acid solution is washed with ether to remove fatty 
matter. The solution is then made alkaline with sodium 
carbonate and shaken out with ether. The ether solu- 
tion is acidulated with hydrochloric acid and evaporated. 
The residue is mixed with alcohol and again evaporated 
to insure the complete removal of the excess of hydro- 
chloric acid. The residue is then weighed. 

Cinchona. — The drug is shaken for five hours with a 
mixture of chloroform, ether, and ammonium hydrox- 
ide. An aliquot part of the clear solution is shaken out 
with acidulated water, and divided into two equal parts. 
From one portion the total anhydrous alkaloids are 
determined, by rendering the portion alkaline and shak- 
ing out with a mixture of chloroform and ether. Then 
evaporate and weigh. The second portion is shaken 
out in the same manner, using a definite quantity of 
ether. This gives the ether-soluble alkaloids, which 
consist principally of quinine with some quinidine and 
cinchonidine. The solubility in ether of the four 
principal alkaloids of cinchona, as given by Hesse, are: 
Quinine, 4.5 parts; quinidine, 22 parts; cinchonidine, 
70 parts; and cinchonine, 526 parts. 

Nux Vomica. — The total alkaloid for nux vomica, 
strychnine, and brucine are obtained by shaking out, 
according to directions for the second group. The 
residue is then dissolved in 3 per cent, sulphuric acid and 
the brucine destroyed by oxidation with nitric acid, 
neutralized and shaken out with chloroform, and, 
finally, evaporated and titrated. It is of the greatest 
importance that the directions be closely followed. The 



360 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

nitric acid used should bave a specific gravity of 1.42. 
If the acid be too weak the brucine will be imperfectly 
oxidized; if too strong or allowed to stand too long, a 
portion of the strychnine will be destroyed. The addi- 
tion of 0.01 Gm. of sodium nitrate to the nitric acid 
insures a uniform oxidation. 

Opium. — Morphine, the principal alkaloid in opium, 
does not behave toward solvents like other alkaloids, 
hence an entirely different procedure is necessary. The 
opium is exhausted with water, evaporated to a small 
volume, alcohol and ether added, and after agitation 
ammonium hydroxide is added. It is again agitated for 
ten or fifteen minutes. When crystals begin to appear 
it is then allowed to stand nine hours or overnight. The 
ether is decanted, and more ether added and decanted, 
to remove narcotine and other alkaloids. The crystals 
are then collected on a filter, washed, dried, and weighed. 
As morphine is sparingly soluble in the water used, and 
more soluble in an excess of alkali, it is important that 
the solution be as concentrated as possible before adding 
the alkali, also that an excess of alkali should be avoided. 
In any case some morphine will be lost in the mother 
liquid. The morphine obtained is apt to be impure, and 
the Pharmacopoeia directs to determine the impurities 
by dissolving the morphine in lime water and weighing 
the impurities. This must be deducted from the weight 
of impure morphine obtained. 

Colchicum. — Seed and Corm. — 10 Gm. of the drug 
are occasionally agitated for twelve hours with a mixture 
of chloroform, ether, alcohol, and ammonia water. An 
aliquot part, representing 5 Gm., is evaporated to dry- 



PHARMACOPCEIAL ASSAY METHODS 361 

ness and dissolved in 10 Cc. of ether. A little water is 
added and the mixture stirred until the ether evaporates. 
It is then filtered, the residue again treated with ether 
and water, and the whole filtered. The filtrate is then 
shaken out with chloroform. The chloroform is evapo- 
rated and the residue treated as before, and finally 
shaken out again with chloroform. Lastly, the chloro- 
form is evaporated, and all remaining traces of it are 
removed by adding a little alcohol and again evapor- 
ating to dryness and then weighed. The object of re- 
peated treatments with ether and water is to completely 
remove the alkaloid from the fatty resinous matter. 

Jalap. — Jalap contains two resins, the most valuable 
being insoluble in ether. Hence, the Pharmacopoeia 
directs first to extract with ether, then evaporate and 
weigh the residue as ether-soluble resin. The drug 
previously extracted with ether is reextracted with 
alcohol, and the alcoholic extract mixed with chloroform 
and water. After separation the chloroform is drawn 
off and the aqueous liquid again shaken out with chloro- 
form. Finally, the chloroform is evaporated, the residue 
dried and weighed as ether-insoluble resin. This added 
to the ether-soluble resin gives the total resin in the jalap. 

Assay of Spirits of Nitrous Ether. — The Pharmacopoeia 
gives detailed directions for the assay, and in the appen- 
dix, under Gasometric Estimation, describes the appara- 
tus and method of using. It therefore remains only to 
explain some of the manipulations and changes involved. 
The operation consists in filling the nitrometer with a 
saturated salt solution and running into it a definite 
quantity of the spirit. This is followed with potassium 



362 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

iodide solution, and then dilute sulphuric acid. The 
ethyl nitrite is decomposed according to the following 
equation : 

C 2 H 5 N0 2 + H 2 S0 4 + KI = C 2 H 5 OH + KHS0 4 + I + NO 

Ethyl Sulphuric Potassium Alcohol. Potassium Iodine. Nitric 

nitrite. acid. iodide. acid sulphate. oxide. 

The nitric oxide gas is measured as directed, observing 
temperature and pressure. The object of using the 
saturated salt solution is to increase the density of the 
water, in order that the solutions which are added will 
not mix readily with the water. Before weighing the 
spirits it is shaken with potassium bicarbonate to 
neutralize the acid, which is sure to be present in spirits 
kept for any length of time. As the gas is to be measured, 
it is important that all air be expelled by lifting the open 
arm or bulb until the salt solution completely fills even 
the bore of the stopcock. After closing the stopcock the 
open arm or bulb should be lowered before allowing 
the liquids to pass in, otherwise any gas that is formed 
would be forced upward through the liquid and lost. 
As there is an excess of the acid solution, it is not neces- 
sary to let all of it pass into the nitrometer. If a few 
drops are allowed to remain above the stopcock there 
will be no danger that air may enter the nitrometer. 

Each cubic centimeter of gas is the equivalent of 
0.0030673 Gm. of ethyl nitrite at 25° C. and 760 mm. 
pressure, which, multiplied by the number of cubic 
centimeters of gas obtained, gives the amount of ethyl 
nitrite in the amount actually taken. Then the amount 
taken is to the weight of ethyl nitrite obtained, as 100 
is to the per cent, of ethyl nitrite in the solution. 



PHARMACOPCEIAL ASSAY METHODS 363 

Example. — If 31 Gm. of the spirits be diluted to 100 
Cc, and 10 Cc. of this, equals 3.1 Gm. of spirits, are 
placed in the nitrometer, then 40 Cc. of nitric oxide be 
obtained. We have 40 X 0.003067 = 0.12268 Gm. of 
ethyl nitrate. 3.1 : 0.12268 :: 100 : X = 3.9 per cent, of 
ethyl nitrate. The Pharmacopoeia directs that a cor- 
rection be made for variations from standard tempera- 
ture and pressure. The temperature correction is one- 
third of 1 per cent, of the total percentage found, for 
each degree of temperature, additive if below and sub- 
tractive if above 25°. 

The pressure correction is four-thirtieths of 1 per 
cent, for each millimeter, additive if above, subtractive 
if below, 760 mm. In the above problem, let it be sup- 
posed that the gas was measured at 20° C. instead of at 
25° C. We will then have 3.9 X 0.0033 X 5 = 0.065, to 
be added to 3.9 = 4.01 per cent. Had the temperature 
been 30° instead of 25° C. then the 0.065 must be sub- 
tracted for the per cent. If the gas had been measured 
at a pressure of 720 mm. instead of 760 mm. the correc- 
tion for pressure would be (760 - 720) = 40 X 0.00133 
X 3.95 = 0.22, to be subtracted from 4.015 = 3.895 
per cent. 

Assay of Amyl Nitrite. — The same method is employed 
for the assay of amyl nitrite as is used for spirits of 
nitrous ether. The reaction is : 

C 5 H n N0 2 + KI + H 2 S0 4 = C 5 H n OH + KHS0 4 + I + NO 

Amyl Potassium Sulphuric Amyl Potassium Iodine. Nitric 
nitrite. iodide. acid. alcohol, acid sulphate. oxide. 

Assay of Solution of Hydrogen Dioxide. — The assay 
depends upon the reaction taking place between the 



364 ALKALOIDS AND DRUG ASSAY 

hydrogen dioxide and potassium permanganate, in the 
presence of sulphuric acid. Both are reduced with the 
liberation of oxygen, as is shown by the following 
equation : 

5H 2 2 + 2KMn0 4 + 3H 2 S0 4 = K 2 S0 4 + 2MnS0 4 + 8H 2 + 50 2 

Hydrogen Potassium Sulphuric Potassium Manganous Water. Oxygen, 
dioxide, permanganate, acid. sulphate. sulphate. 

One atom of oxygen is liberated from each molecule 
of hydrogen dioxide and the other atoms of oxygen are 
furnished by the potassium permanganate. Therefore, 
each cubic centimeter of N/10 potassium permanganate 
is equivalent to 0.001688 gm. of hydrogen dioxide. If 
a quantity of the solution, represented by one-tenth of 
the combining weight of the hydrogen dioxide, is taken, 
then the numbers of cubic centimeters of the N/10 
potassium permanganate consumed will correspond to 
0.1 per cent, of absolute hydrogen dioxide. 

Assay of Formaldehyde. — The formaldehyde is mixed 
with a definite quantity of normal sodium hydroxide 
solution, then oxidized to formic acid by the action of 
hydrogen dioxide solution, which combines with the 
sodium hydroxide to form sodium formate. 

2HCOH + HOOH + 2NaOH = 2NaCOOH + 2H 2 + H 2 

Formaldehyde. Hydrogen Sodium Sodium Water. Hydro- 

dioxide, hydroxide. formate. gen. 

When reaction ceases, the excess of sodium hydroxide 
is titrated back with normal sulphuric acid. One 
molecule of sodium hydroxide is neutralized by the acid 
formed from one molecule of formaldedyde. Accord- 
ingly, 1 Cc. of normal sodium hydroxide solution so 
neutralized is equivalent to 0.02979 Gm. of absolute 
formaldehyde. 



PHARMACOPCEIAL ASSAY METHODS 365 

Assay of Pepsin. — The assay of pepsin depends upon 
the amount of hard-boiled egg albumin capable of 
digestion by a given quantity of pepsin under definite 
conditions. By varying the conditions different results 
are obtained. For this reason it is of the greatest impor- 
tance that the directions be strictly followed. High 
temperature destroys pepsin, but a slight elevation above 
the 52° C. directed for the test, or more vigorous agita- 
tion than directed, increases the amount of albumin 
dissolved. 

Assay of Pancreatin. — The assay of pancreatin is 
based upon the power which pancreatin possesses to 
convert starch into dextrine and maltose, or substances 
soluble in water. Unconverted starch forms a blue or 
purple color with iodine solution, while the converted 
starch produces at most only a reddish shade. 



CHAPTEE XLV. 

NOTES ON ASSAY METHODS FOR VOLATILE OILS. 

The Pharmacopoeia furnishes methods for the assay 
of a number of volatile oils, and in most cases the 
methods are so simple that they can be easily followed. 
However, a few comments upon the general principles 
involved may assist the student in understanding the 
details of the operation. 

Assay of Aldehydes. — The method for the assay of 
such oils as bitter almonds, cinnamon, lemon, and the 
synthetic benzaldehyde depends upon the fact that 
sodium acid sulphite forms with aldehydes a compound 
soluble in water. In the case of oil of cinnamon, the 
cinnamic aldehyde first forms with the acid sulphite a 
sparingly soluble compound, thus: 

C,H 7 COH + NaHS0 3 = C 8 H 7 COH.NaHSO,. 

Cinnamic Sodium Sodium cinnamaldehydroxy- 

aldehyde. bisulphite. sulphonate. 

By continued heat two molecules of the sparingly 
soluble compound is broken up into cinnamic aldehyde 
and the soluble compound, thus: 

2C 8 H 7 COHNaHS0 3 + heat = C 8 H 7 COH + C 7 H 7 CH, NaS0 3 . COH. NaHS0 3 
Cinnamic Sodium sulphocinnamalde- 

aldehyde. hydroxysulphonate. 

By supplying additional quantities of the bisulphite 
solution and heating, all the aldehyde may be converted 



ASSAY OF ALDEHYDES 367 

into the soluble compound. The operation is conducted 
in a 100 Cc. flask with a long neck, graduated to tenths of 
a cubic centimeter. When the aldehyde is all combined, 
the solution is cooled to 25° and enough of the bisulphite 
solution is added to raise the bottom of the uncombined 
oil to the zero mark. The number of cubic centimeters 
of uncombined oil subtracted from the amount taken 
gives the amount of aldehyde present. In the case of the 
oils of bitter almond, lemon, and the benzaldehyde, the 
same principle is involved, except that the bisulphite 
is formed by the action of hydrochloric acid on normal 
sodium sulphite. The bisulphite formed combines 
with the aldehyde, and the solution becomes alkaline. 
By the cautious addition of hydrochloric acid a point 
may be reached where the solution remains neutral and 
all the aldehyde is combined with the sulphite. In the 
pharmacopceial test, the amount of alcohol is determined 
by the amount of N/2 hydrochloric acid required to 
maintain a neutral solution when added to a mixture 
of the oil with a neutral solution of sodium sulphite. 
The reaction may be seen from the following equation, 
using citrol as the aldehyde : 

2HCl + 2Na 2 S0 3 + C a H 15 COH = C,H 15 (NaHS0 3 ) 2 COH. + 2NaCL 

Hydro- Sodium Citrol. Citroldihydrosulphonate. Sodium 

chloric acid, sulphite. chloride. 

Two molecules, each of hydrochloric acid and sodium 
sulphite, are required for one molecule of the aldehyde. 
Hence, 1 Cc. of N/2 hydrochloric acid is equivalent to 
molecular weight of aldehyde 

2 X 1000 X 2 
With citrol x = 0.037745. 



368 ASSAY METHODS FOR VOLATILE OILS 

Assay of Alcohol. — Alcohols present in oils are usually 
partially free, and partially combined as an ester, which 
is a combination of an alcohol and an organic acid. In 
this case it is best to determine the ester by saponification, 
and then to convert the free oil into an ester by acetyli- 
zation, and again saponify to determine the total alco- 
hols. The details of this method are included in the 
pharmacopceial method for the assay of peppermint 
oil. The ester is first determined by the saponification 
of a known weight of the oil with an excess of N/2 
alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution. The mixture 
is boiled for one hour in a flask connected with an 
upright condenser. Then the excess of potassium 
hydroxide is determined by titration with half normal 
sulphuric acid solution, which amount deducted from 
the amount of N/2 potassium hydroxide solution taken, 
gives the amount required to saponify the oil. Each 
cubic centimeter of this N/2 potassium hydroxide is 
equivalent to 

molecular weight 
~1000 X 2 
= 0.09834 Gm. of menthol acetate. Hence, to find the 
per cent., multiply the number of cubic centimeters by 
(0.09834 X 100) and divide by the weight of the oil 
taken. 

C 10 H 19 C 2 H 3 O 2 + KOH - C 10 H 19 OH + KC 2 H 3 2 . 

Menthol acetate. Potassium Menthol. Potassium 

hydroxide. acetate. 

For the determination of the total alcohol, a fresh 
portion of oil may be taken or the residual oil from 
the above operation may be thoroughly washed and a 



ASSAY OF ALCOHOL 369 

portion of it placed in a flask together with the glacial 
acetic acid and anhydrous sodium acetate. The flask 
should be connected with a reflex condenser by means 
of a ground-glass joint. The mixture is boiled for one 
hour, and after cooling the oil is separated, washed with 
water, and finally, with sodium hydroxide to remove the 
free acid. It is dried with fused calcium chloride. The 
alcohol is then determined by the saponification of a 
weighed quantity of the acetylized oil as previously 
given. Each cubic centimeter of N/2 potassium hydrox- 
ide solution required is equal to 0.07749 Gm. of free 
menthol. The amount of acetylized oil taken does not 
represent the same amount of the original oil, since it 
has increased in weight by acetylization. The amount 
of the increase is equal to the difference between the 
equivalents of the acetic ester and the free menthol, 
multiplied by the number of cubic centimeters of potas- 
sium hydroxide required for saponification, or 0.09834 
- 0.07749 = 0.02085, or approximately 0.021 Gm. for 
each cubic centimeter of N/2 potassium hydroxide. 
This multiplied by the number of cubic centimeters 
N/2 required gives the amount to be subtracted from 
the weight of acetylized oil taken, in order to obtain its 
equivalent of original oil. To obtain the total per cent, 
of menthol, multiply 0.07749 by the number of cubic 
centimeters of N/2 potassium hydroxide required, and by 
100 divided by the weight of original oil. Oil of rose- 
mary containing bornyl acetate and borneol is assayed 
by the above method. Oil of santol is assayed for total 
alcohol only. Oil of rose is assayed by determining its 
saponification number by the usual method. 
24 



370 ASSAY METHODS FOR VOLATILE OILS 

Assay of Phenols. — The pharmacopoeial method for 
the assay of phenols rests upon the fact that they form 
soluble compounds with alkalies. 

In the case of cloves and pimento the oil is placed in 
a flask with a long neck, graduated to tenths, and 
shaken with the potassium hydroxide solution. After 
separation sufficient potassium hydroxide solution is 
added to raise the lower surface of the uncombined oil 
to zero. The volume of uncombined oil subtracted from 
the amount taken gives the amount of phenol present 
in the oil. The method for oil of thyme is practically 
the same except that less alkali is used and the operation 
is conducted in a burette. 

Assay for Cineol. — The pharmaceutical method for 
the assay of oils of eucalyptus and cajuput depend upon 
the formation of cineol phosphate insoluble in cold 
benzin, but decomposed by hot water. The oil is dis- 
solved in benzin, which is placed in a freezing mixture, 
and phosphoric acid added, drop by drop, until the 
white magma begins to turn yellow or pink. Then it is 
poured upon a rapid force filter, washed with cold ben- 
zin and dried by pressure between porous plates. The 
dried cineol phosphate is then placed in a cylindrical 
graduate, decomposed by hot water, and the volume of 
cineol measured. 



PART III. 
DISPENSING. 



Most operations involved in dispensing have already 
been treated in Part II. There remains, however, a few 
special subjects which apply to the prescription that 
must be considered individually. 



CHAPTEE XLVL 

THE PRESCRIPTION. 

The paper upon which a prescription is written is 
called a "prescription blank." It should be of good 
quality, of strong texture, and not easily torn. In size 
it should be five inches long by three and one-half 
inches wide. In the upper left-hand corner should be 
printed the prescription symbol fy For convenience 
the physician's name, address, and telephone number 
should also appear upon the blank, in case it becomes 
necessary for the pharmacist to consult the physician. 
The word prescription is derived from the Latin prce- 
scribere, pros, before, and scribere, to write; to write 
before. The term "prescription" is applied to the 



372 THE PRESCRIPTION 

written order given a patient, and also to the medicine 
compounded by the pharmacist, when the physician's 
written order is presented to him. These may be dis- 
tinguished as the "Written Prescription/ ' and the 
"Compounded Prescription." 



THE WRITTEN PRESCRIPTION. 

The written prescription may be divided into four 
parts — the superscription, the inscription, the subscrip- 
tion, and the signature. 

The Superscription. — The superscription bears the 
date, and also the name of the patient. The latter is 
especially necessary when the medicine is for a babe or 
a young child. Many superscriptions contain only the 
symbol 1$, which is doubtless a combination of the plain 
R for recipe and the symbol % . The latter is the symbol 
of Jupiter, and formerly preceded the formula or pre- 
scription. This symbol supplied the place of an ancient 
custom of beginning a prescription with an invocation 
to the gods. While many physicians know of its origin, 
doubtless many use it without a thought of its super- 
stitious meaning, but use it in place of recipe, meaning 
"take thou." 1 

The Inscription. — The inscription contains the names 
of the ingredients, which should be written in Latin. 
This is so because the Latin language is not subject to 
change, and is used by intelligent physicians in all parts 

1 Those interested in the history of the prescription should 
read the book entitled The Prescription, by Dr. C. O. Wall. 



THE WRITTEN PRESCRIPTION 373 

of the civilized world. Therefore, a prescription written 
in France, Germany, or Russia may be compounded 
in the United States. Furthermore, each name indicates 
a particular substance, while common names are fre- 
quently applied to different substances. The common 
name " snake root" may mean either cimicifuga, senega, 
or serpentaria, and has been applied to more than a 
dozen other plants, several of which are used medici- 
nally. Again, the same plant may be known by different 
names in different localities. Hydrastis is recognized by 
at least fourteen common names in the United States. 
Such facts prove the absurdity of complying with the 
public's frequent demand that physicians should write 
prescriptions in the English language. It is also often 
better for the patient that he should not know witat he 
is taking; hence, pharmacists should be cautious about 
supplying such information. Physicians seldom write 
the names of ingredients with full Latin endings, but 
usually abbreviate. This practice is unobjectionable 
when not carried to such an extent as to obscure the 
meaning. The names of the ingredients are followed 
by the quantities of each, which if written in the old 
system is expressed by the symbols gr., 9, 5* 5> an d 
Roman numerals. If written in the metric system they 
are expressed by Arabic numerals followed by the 
abbreviations Gm. or Cc. These abbreviations are 
frequently omitted when the decimal point is used. In 
Europe the denomination is understood, as solids and 
liquids are always weighed. When the decimal system 
is employed, a line should be used in place of decimal 
points. 



374 THE PRESCRIPTION 

The Subscription. — The subscription, or the direc- 
tions to the dispenser, are written in Latin, but are 
generally abbreviated, Ft. Sol. (Fiat solution), let there 
be made a solution; M. Ft. Colly, et fill., misce, fiat 
collyrium et filtra; mix, make eye wash, and filter. For 
other abbreviations employed, see list, page 388. 

The Signature. — The signature, or directions to the 
patient, should be written in English, thus avoiding 
any possibility of mistake in translating. The practice 
of writing "as directed," or "take as directed," cannot 
be too severely condemned, as it leaves the dispenser 
with no knowledge of the dose. Hence, an overdose may 
be most easily dispensed. Furthermore, the patient may 
forget the dose, especially when taking more than one 
mixture during the day. Let the directions be followed 
by the name, address, and telephone number of the 
prescriber. 

The following prescription serves to illustrate: 
Superscription: 

For C. Adair, March 12, 1909. 

Inscription: Strychninse sulphatis . . . gr. ss 

Ipecacuanha? gr. ij 

Extracti belladonnse foliorum . gr. ij 
Massse hydrargyri .... Q i j 
Extracti colocynthidis compositi Q ij 
Subscription: Misce et divide in pilulse 

numero viginti. 
Signature: Signa, one pill night and morning. 
Dr. Blank, 

30 Arbor Street. 
Phone, 211. 



THE WRITTEN PRESCRIPTION 375 

R or 1^ is an abbreviation for the verb recipe, which 
means "take thou," and might be written, "take a given 
quantity of the given ingredients." Hence, when placed 
at the beginning of a prescription it applies to or governs 
the amount of each ingredient contained therein. There- 
fore, the quantities, when written in Latin, are placed in 
the accusative case, and are the direct objects of the 
verb recipe. The ingredients are all in the genitive case. 

Strychnine, Ipecacuanha?, Belladonna?, and Massa? 
are all genitive singular feminine nouns of the first 
declension. 

Sulphatis is a genitive singular masculine noun of the 
second declension. 

Extracti and Hydrargyri are genitive singular neuter 
nouns of the third declension. 

Foliorum is a genitive plural feminine noun of the first 
declension. 

Colocynthidis is a genitive singular feminine noun of 
the third declension. 

Compositi is the genitive singular of compositum, an 
adjective qualifying the noun extr actum, with which it 
must agree in gender, number, and case. 



CHAPTEK XL VII. 

SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN. 

In this chapter it is purposed to outline only so much 
of Latin grammar as is serviceable in prescription 
reading, hence the title. 

Pronunciation. — In this paragraph Latin pronuncia- 
tion can be discussed only very superficially. By the 
English method here adopted the student should in 
general endeavor to pronounce Latin words as he would 
were they English words. The sounds of the letters are 
the same as in English, including the short and long 
vowel sounds. The following hints are supplementary 
only: 

a. The Latin alphabet has no w, otherwise it is the 
same as the English. 

b. (1) ch = k, as in chloroform; c = s and g = j 
before e, i, y, ce, ce, eu; charta, cera, geum. 

(2) Final es and os like ease and dose. 

(3) y = i, oe and ce equal e in all cases; au = awe; 
eu like you; ei = i in fie. 

(4) Final a as in spatula, but a, da, qua as in day, 
e. g., bacca. 

(5) A vowel ending an accented syllable has its long 
English sound, but has its short sound when followed 
by a consonant in the same syllable, e. g., hy"-5s- 
cy-a/-mus. 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 377 

(6) A word has as many syllables as vowels and 
diphthongs; join consonants to vowels according to 
ease of pronunciation. 

c. The rules usually given for quantity and accent 
are as follows: 

(1) A syllable is long in quantity when it has (1) a long 
vowel, (2) a diphthong, or (3) a short vowel followed by 
x, z, or two consonants; and is short when it contains 
a short vowel, or vowel followed by another vowel or h. 

(2) Accent words of two syllables on the first, words 
of more than two syllables on the next to the last syllable 
if long, but if short accent the second from the last 
syllable. 

English and Latin Compared. — Declension. — In Latin 
there are no words for the English articles a and the. 
Furthermore, in English we express word relations and 
such ideas as time, direction, possession, etc., by com- 
binations of prepositions with nouns, whereas the Latin 
oftener accomplishes this by suffixing to the body of the 
word, called the base, syllables which serve as preposi- 
tions. Thus, if we suffix a to chart, the base of the 
Latin word for paper, we have charta, "the paper," 
as subject of the sentence. If we suffix a? we have 
charta, "of the paper," corresponding to the English 
possessive form; if am, we get chartam, "the paper," 
as object of a verb. Adding a gives charta, the ablative 
form meaning sometimes, "on the paper." These four 
changes in the word charta exemplify the four "cases" 
of nouns used in pharmaceutical Latin — nominative, 
genitive, accusative, and ablative. Together they illus- 
trate the meaning of declension, or the changing of the 



378 SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 

form of nouns and adjectives to show case, number, and 
gender. In Latin there are five such declensions of 
nouns, distinguished by the genitive ending, singular 
number. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

Prescription Latin consists mostly of nouns and adjec- 
tives together with a few verbs, adverbs, prepositions, 
and conjunctions. 

First Declension. — The genitive singular of first 
declension nouns ends in -ae, the nominative in -a. All 
except four of the nouns 1 in a belong to this declension, 
are feminine, and declined as follows: 

Mistura, a or the mixture; base, mistur- 2 

Singular. 
Nom. mistura, a mixture (as subject). 
Gen. mistura?, of a mixtura. 
Ace. misturara, a mixture (as object). 
Abl. mistura, with, by, from, in a mixture. 

Plural. 
Nom. mistura?, mixtures (as subject). 
Gen. misturdrum, of mixtures. 
Ace. mistura^, mixtures (as object). 
Abl. mistum, with, by, from, in mixtures. 

Similarly decline aqua, belladonna, capsula, drachma, 
scatula, uncia. 

1 Aspidosperma, cataplasma, physostigma, and coca. 

2 The base sometimes coincides with the stem, sometimes not. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 379 

Second Declension. — The genitive singular of second 
declension nouns ends in -i, the nominative of the 
masculines in -us (os), of the neuters in -um (on). There 
are no feminines. All except eight of the nouns 1 in 
-us are of this declension and are declined as follows: 

Syrupus, a or the syrup; base, syrup. 

Singular. 
Nom. syrupy, the syrup (as subject). 
Gen. syrupz, of a syrup. 
Ace. syrupwra, the syrup (as object). 
Abl. syrupo, with, by, from, in a syrup. 

Plural. 
Nom. syrupl 
Gen. sympdrum. 
Ace. syrupo\s. 
Abl. syrupis. 

Similarly, decline phosphorus, daucus, hyoscyamus, 
cactus, octarius, 2 congius. 2 Greek nouns in -os 3 are 
declined like — 

Prinos, black alder; base, prin- 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. prinos. prim. 

Gen. prim. prinorwra. 

Ace. princw. prinos. 

Abl. prino. priniis 

Likewise decline diospyros, and cissampelos. 

1 Rhus, fortius, cornus, fructus, haustus, potus, quercus, 
spiritus. 

2 Genitive in -ii 

3 Flos, floris, is of the third declension. 



380 SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 

The models for neuter nouns are : 
Unguentum, ointment; base, unguent- 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. unguentnm. unguenta. 

Gen. unguenti unguentonm. 

Ace. unguent um. unguenta. 

Abl. unguento. unguents. 

Similarly, decline ferrum, granum, infusum, cuprum, 
trillium, hordeum. 

Diachylon, lead plaster; base, diachyl- 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. diachylon, diachyla. 

Gen. diachylf. diachylorwm. 

Ace. diachylon. diachyla. 

Abl. diachylo. diachylf5. 

Decline erythroxylon, hsematoxylon, liriodendron, 
phoradendron, toxicodendron. 

Third Declension .--The genitive singular of third 
declension nouns ends in -is, the nominative in -a, -e, 
-i, -o, -y, -c, -I, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The base is always the 
genitive singular deprived of -is. All of the remaining 
cases are formed by adding the case ending to the base, 
except where in neuters the accusative and nominative 
singular are the same. The masculines and feminines 
are declined alike, the neuters somewhat differently. 
The following is a partial classification of these nouns 
according to the nominative and genitive singular 
endings. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 



381 



Types of Third Declension Nouns. 



Gender. 


Nom. 


Gen. 


Paradigm. 


Meaning. 


1. Neut. 


-a 


-atis 


stigma, stigmaft's 


brand, mark. 


2. Mas. 


-as 


-atis 


boras, borafis 


borate 


3. Neut. 


-ar 


-aris 


cochlear, cochlearis 


spoon 


4. Neut. 


-e 


-is 


secale, secah's 


rye, grain 


5. Neut. 


-en 


-inis 


gramen, gramtms 


grass 


6. M. and N. 


-er 


-eris 


aether, setheris, M. 
piper, pipen's, N. 


ether 
pepper 


7. Fern. 


-es 


-is 


moles, moHs 


huge bulk 


8. Fern. 


-is 


-is 


dosis, dosis 


dose 


9. Fern. 


-is 


-idis 


macis, macidis 


mace 


10. Mas. 


-is 


-tis 


nitris, nitrifies 


nitrite 


11. Mas. 


-is 


-eris 


pulvis, pulvm's 


powder 


12. Mas. 


-o 


-onis 


sapo, saponis 


soap 


13. Fern. 


-do 


-dinis 


hirudo, hirudmts 


leech 


14. Fern. 


-go 


-ginis 


fulioo, ivliginis 


soot 


15. Fern 


-io 


-ionis 


praescripfrio, -scriptiom's 


prescription 


16. Fern. 


-on 


-onis 


limon, limonz's 


lemon 


17. Mas. 


-or 


-oris 


liquor, liquoris 


fluid 


18. Mas. 


-OS 


-oris 


Hos, ftoris 


flower 


19. Fern. 


-ns 


-ndis 


juglans, juglandis 


walnut 


20. Neut. 


-c 


-ctis 


lac, lactis 


milk 


21. Mas. 


-ol 


-olis 


menthoZ, menthol's 


menthol 


22. Neut. 


-1 


-lis 


chloraZ, chloraZzs 


chloral 


23. Neut. 


-ur 


-uris 


sulphur, sulphur is 


sulphur 


24. Fern. 


-rs 


-rtis 


pars, -partis 


part 


25. Fern. 


-ps 


-pis 


adeps, adipis 


fat 


26. Fern. 


-X 


-cis 


cortex, corticts 


bark 


Important Exceptions. 


— Asclepias, -adis, f.; Mas, maris, 


m. Rhus, rhois 


(gen.) rhum (ace). 









Paradigms. 



Bilis 




Oleas 


Potio 




Base, 


bil- 


olea-t- 


potio-n- 




Bile 




Oleate 


Potion 




Singular. 






Termination 


Nom. 


hllis 


oleas 


potio 




Gen. 


hl\is 


oleah's 


potionis 


-is 


Ace. 


bilera 


oleatem 


potionem 


-em 


Abl. 


bile 


oleate 


potione 


-e 



382 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



Plural Termination 

Nom. biles oleates potionds -es 

Gen. bilium olehtum potion um -ium, -um 

Ace. hilts olea,tes potion^ -is, -es 

Abl. bllibus oleMibus potionibus -ibus 





Pix 


Semen 


Mel 






pic 


semin 


mell 




: 


Pitch 


Seed 


Honey 




Singular 




Termination 


Nom 


pix 


semen 


mel 




Gen. 


picis 


seminis 


melh's 


-is 


Ace. 


picem 


semen 


mel 


-em 


AM. 


pice 


semine 


melle 


-e 


Plural 






Termination 


Nom. 


pices 


semina 


mella 


-es, -a 


Gen. 


picwra 


seminwm 


mellwra 


-um 


Ace. 


pices 


semina 


mella 


-is, -a 


Abl. 


picibus 


semimbus 


melh'6%5 


-ibus 



Fourth Declension. — Four or five nouns of this declen- 
sion are neuter, a couple of dozen feminine, and the rest 
masculine. None of the neuters and but few feminines 
(botanical names) have pharmaceutical importance. 
Masculine and feminine nouns are declined alike, hav- 
ing the same form in both nominative and genitive 
singular, ending in -us. This when dropped gives the 
base. The ablative plural of dissyllable nouns in -cus 
ends in -ubus, e. g., quercus, quercubus. 



PARADIGM 383 



PARADIGM. 

Pulsus, pulse; base, puis- 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. pulsws. pulsws. 

Gen. pulsus. pulsuwm. 

Ace. pulsum. pulsus. 

Abl. pulsw. puhibus. 

Decline, also, spiritus, ficus, auctus, sestus, abscessus, 
vomitus. 

Fifth Declension. — Nouns of the fifth declension have 
practically no pharmaceutical significance. The geni- 
tive singular ends in -el, and are declined as follows : 

Dies; base, di. Day. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. dies. 


dies. 


Gen. die! 


dierum. 


Ace. diem. 


dies. 


Abl. di£. 


diebus. 



Most nouns of this declension are declined in the 
singular only. The student may decline abies, eluvies, 
glacies, and colluvies in both numbers. 

Indeclinable Nouns. — There are also a large number 
of indeclinable nouns, i. e., such as have the same form 
in all cases. Buchu, coca, indigo, koumiss, sago, and 
sassafras are a few of the commonest. 



384 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



ADJECTIVES. 

Latin adjectives have special forms for use: (1) 
With each case; (2) in both numbers; and (3) for all 
genders. Each adjective must, therefore, have at least 
twenty-four such forms; when there is used with a 
noun that adjectival form which corresponds with it in 
gender, number, and case, the adjective is said to 
"agree" with the noun in those three particulars, as is 
demanded by the laws of Latin grammar. 

There are two classes of adjectives. The first class 
is called adjectives of the first and second declensions, 
since its case endings correspond to noun forms of 
those declensions. They are thus declined: 

Albus, white; base, alb- 

Singular. Plural. 



Mas. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Mas. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Nom. albus 


alba 


album 


alta 


albce 


alba 


Gen. albl 


alba? 


alta 


albdrum 


albdrum 


albdrum 


Ace. album 


albam 


album 


albds 


albas 


alba 


Abl. albd 


alba 


albd 


albis 


albis 


albis 



Niger, black; base, nig- 

Singular. Plural. 



Mas. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Mas. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


Nom. niger 


nigra 


nigrum 


nigrt 


nigra? 


nigra 


Gen. nigrt 


nigra? 


nigrt 


nigrdrum 


nigrdrum 


nigrOrum 


Ace. nigrum 


nigram 


nigrum 


nigrds 


nigrds 


nigra 


Abl. nigrd 


nigra 


nigra 


nigrts 


nigrts 


nigrls 



Decline exsiccatus, -a, -um; elixus, -a, -um; ruber, 
•bra, -brum; ater, -tra, -trum; eximius, -a, -um; inscius, 
•a, -um. 



ADJECTIVES 



385 



The genitive singular, masculine, and neuter of adjec- 
tives in -ius ends in -it; e. g., dubu. 

The second class of adjectives are called adjectives 
of the third declension, since their forms correspond to 
third declensions noun forms. It is to be noticed that 
their genitive singular always ends in -is. They are 
designated as adjectives of three, two or one termina- 
tion, according as they have in the nominative singular, 
separate forms for all genders, the same form for mas- 
culine and feminine, or only one form for all genders. 
They are thus declined: 



Singular. 



Mas 
Nom. acer 
Gen. acrls 
Ace. acrem 
Abl. acrl 



Fern. 

acris 

acris 

acrem 

acrl 



Acer, acrid. 



Plural. 



Neut. Mas. Fern. Neut. 

acre acrCs acres acria 

acris acrium acrium acrium 

acre acres (Is) acres (is) acrid, 



acrl 



acribus acribus acribus 



Singular. 



Mas. and Fern. 
Nom. fortis 
Gen. fortis 
Ace. iortem 
Abl. iortl 



Fortis, strong. 



Neut. 

forte 

fortis 

forte 

fortl 



Plural. 



Ma?, and Fern. 

fortes 
iortium 
fortes (Is) 
iortibus 



Neut. 
fortia 
iortium 
fortia 
iortibus 



Singular. 



Duplex, twofold. 



Plural. 



Mas. and Fern. 


Neut. 


Mas. and Fern. 


Neut. 


Nom. duplex 


duplex 


duplices 


duplicia 


Gen. duplicis 


duplicis 


dupliciwm 


duplicium 


Ace. duplicew 


duplex 


duplices 


duplicia 


Abl. duplicl 


duplicl 


duplicibtts 


duplici&us 


25 









386 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



Elegans, elegant. 



Singular. 




Plural. 


Mas. and Fern. 


Neut. 


Mas. and Fem. 


Neut. 


Nom. elegans 


elegans 


elegantes 


elegantm 


Gen. elegantis 


eleganU's 


eleganttwm 


eleganU'um 


Ace. elegantem 


elegans 


elegantes 


elegantta 


Abl. elegantl (e) 


eleganM (c) 


eleganto'&us 


eleganto'bus 




Uber, fertile. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Mas. and Fern. 


Neut. 


Mas. and Fem. 


Neut. 


Nom. uber 


Uber 


tlberes 


Libera 


Gen. uberis 


Uberis 


uberium 


tlberwm 


Ace. tiberem 


Uber 


uberes 


libera 


Agl. ubert 


iibert 


Uberibus 


Uberi&us 



Like the models, decline saliiber, -bris, -bre; voltalis, 
-e; solubilis, -e; dulcis, -e; potens, -tis; sufficiens, -tis; 
eifervescens, -tis; simplex, -plicis; versicolor, -oris. 

Comparison of Adjectives. — The comparative degrees 
of Latin adjectives are formed by adding tor (Mas. and 
Fem.) and ius (Neut.) to the base of the positive; the 
superlative is formed by adding issimus, issima, issi- 
mum, thus: 

Rarus, rarior, rarissimus. 

Mitis, mitior, mitissimus, etc. 

The superlative is declined like albus, and the com- 
parative is always declined as follows : 

Fortior, stronger. 



Singular. 




Plural. 




Mas. and Fem. 


Neut. 


Mas. and Fem. 


Neut. 


Nom. fortior 


fortius 


fortiOres 


fortiOra 


Gen. fortiorts 


fortioris 


fortiOrura 


fortiOrww 


Ace. fortiorem 


fortius 


fortiOres (is) 


fortiOra 


Abl. fortiore (l) 


fortiore (I) 


fortiOrc'fcus 


fortiori&us 



Form and decline the comparative and superlative 
degrees of aptus, -a, -um, and gravis, -e. 



VERBS, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS 



387 



Numeral Adjectives. — These are little used in pre- 
scriptions. The ordinals, primus, secundus, tertius, 
etc. (first, second, third, etc.), are declined like albus. 
Of the cardinals, unus, duo, ires are the only declinable 
ones found in prescriptions. Tres, tria (three) is 
declined like the plural of fortis. Unus (one) and duo 
(two) are declined as follows: 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Mas. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Neut 


Nom. tinus 


Una 


tinum 


duo 


duos 


duo 


Gen. Xlnlus 


Unlus 


Unlus 


dudrum 


dudrum 


dudrum 


Ace. Unwra 


Unara 


Unurn 


dads 


ducts 


duo 


AM. UnO 


Una 


Uno 


dudbus 


dudbus 


dudbus 



VERBS, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSI- 
TIONS MOST COMMONLY USED IN 
PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Verbs used in prescription writing usually appear in 
the imperative mood, or in the third person singular 
and plural of the subjunctive mood. Examples are: 



Solve, dissolve. 
Repete, repeat. 
Signa, mark. 
Divide, divide. 
Pone, put. 
Adde, add. 
Consperge, sprinkle. 
Fiat, let it be made. 
Detur, dentur, let it, let 

them, be made. 
Obducantur, let them 

be coated. 



Recipe, take. 

Misce, mix. 

Tere, triturate. 

Mitte, send. 

Extende, spread. 

Cola, strain. 

Da, give. 

Fiant, let them be made. 

Misceantur, let them be 

mixed. 
Repetatur, let it be repeated. 
Suffiat, may suffice. 



388 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



PREPOSITIONS, ETC. 

Ab, from, by, with ablative. 

Ad, to, with accusative. 

Ante, before, with accusative. 

Circa, circum, about, around, with accusative. 

Cum, with, with ablative. 

Ex, e, from, out of, with ablative. 

In, in, with accusative. 

Pro, for, with ablative. 

Post, after, with accusative. 

Super, upon, with accusative. 

Secundum, according to, with accusative. 

Sine, without, with ablative. 

Non, ne, not (adverb). 

Ana, abbrev. aa, of each. 

Et, que, on end of words, and (conjunction). 

Ut, so that (conjunction). 

Quantum satis, abbrev. q. s., as much as is needed. 

Latin Terms and Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions. 



Term or phrase. 


Abbreviation. 


Meaning. 


Ablutio 




A washing 


Absente febre 


Abs. febr. 


In the absence of fever 


Accuratissime 


Accuratiss. 


Most carefully 


Acerbus 




Sour 


Ad 


Ad 


To, up to 


Ad conciliandum gustum 




To suit the taste 


Ad defectionem animi 


Ad def. animi 


To fainting 


Adde, addantur, adden- 




Add, or let them be 


dus, addendo 




added, to be added, 
by adding 


Ad duas vices 


Ad 2 vie. 


At twice taking 


Ad gratam aciditatem 


Ad grat. acid. 


To an agreeable sour- 



PREPOSITIONS, ETC 



389 



Latin Terms and Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions, 



Term or phrase. 


Abbreviation. 


Meaning. 


Ad hibendus 




To be administered 


Ad libitum 


Ad. lib. 


At pleasure 


Ad move, admoveratur, 


Admov. 


Apply, let it be applied, 


admoveantur 




let them be applied 


Ad partes dolentes 


Ad part, dolent. 


To the painful parts 


Ad secundum vicem 




To the second time 


Adstante febre 


Adst. febre 


When the fever is on 


Ad tertiam vicem 




For three times 


Adversum 


Adv. 


Against 


^Equalia, is, e 


Ma. 


Equal 


^Etas 




Age, time of life 


Aggredient febre 


Aggred. febre 


While the fever is com- 
ing on 


Agita or agitetur 


Agit. agitet. 


Shake, or let it be 
shaken 


Albus, a, urn 


Alb. 


White 


Alternis horis 




Every other hour 


Alter 




The other 


Amplus 




Large 


Ana 


a or aa 


Of each 


Ante 


Ant. 


Before 


Aqua 


Aq. 


Water 


Aqua bulliens 


Aq. bll. 


Boiling water 


Aqua fervida 


Aq. ferv. 


Hot water 


Aqua phagedenica flava 


Aq. phaged. fl. 


Yellow wash 


Aqua phagedenica nigra 


Aq. phaged. nig. 


Black wash 


Aqua saturni 


Aq. saturn. 


Lead water 


Aquila alba 


Aquil. alb. 


Calomel 


Argilla 


Argill. 


Clay 


Aromaticus, a, urn 


Arom. 


Aromatic 


Bacillum 


BaciU. 


Bougie 


Balneum 


Bain. 


A bath 


Balneum arense 


Bain. aren. 


Sand bath 


Balneum maris 


Bain. mar. 


Salt-water bath 


Balneum vaporis 


Bain. vap. 


Steam bath 


Bene 


Ben. 


Well 


Bis in die 


B. or bis. i. d. 


Twice a day 


Bolus 


Bol. 


A large pill 


Bonus 




Good 


Brevis, is, e 


Brev. 


Short 


Bulliat, bulliant 


Bull. 


Let it, or them, boil 


Ca^ruleus, a, um 


Cserul. 


Blue 


Calefactus, a, um 


Calef. 


Warmed 


Capiat 


Cap. 


May be taken 


Capsula 


Caps. 


Capsule 


Capsuke amylacese 


Caps. amyl. 


Cachets 


Capsulpe gelatinosse 


Caps, gelat. 


Gelatine capsules 



390 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



Latin Terms and Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions 



Term or phrase. 


Abbreviation. 


Meaning. 


Carbasus 


Carbas. 


Lint 


Celeriter 


Celer. , 


Quickly 


Charta 


Chart. 


Paper 


Chartula 


Chartul. 


Small paper 


Charta cerata 


Ch. cer. or chart, 
cerat. 


Waxed paper 


Charta pergamentoria 


Chart, pergam. 


Parchment paper 


Cibus 


Cib. 


Food 


Cito dispensetur 


Cito. disp. . 


Let it be dispensed 
quickly 


Clausus, a, um 


Claus. 


Closed, or enclosed 


Cochlear 


cochl. 


Spoon 


Cochlear magnum 


cochl. magn. 


A large or table spoon 


Cochlear modicum 


Cochl. mod. 


A medium or dessert 
spoon 


Cochlear parvum 


cochl. parv.. 


A small or tea spoon 


Ccena or cena 


Ccen. 


Supper 


Cola or coletur 


Col., colet. 


Strain, or let it be 
strained 


Collunarium 


Collun. 


A nose wash 


Collyrium 


Collyr. 


An eye wash 


Compositus, a, um 


Comp. 


Compound 


Congius 


Cong. 


Gallon 


Consperge 


Consp. 


Dust or sprinkle 


Contra 




Against 


Contunde or contusus 


Contus. 


Bruise or bruised 


Coque 


Coq. 


To boil 


Cujus libet 


Cuj. lib. 


Of whatever you please 


Da, dentur, or detur 


D. 


Give it, or they may 
be given 


Da or dentur tales doses 


D, Dent. t. d. 


Give, or let there be 
given, such doses 


Decanta 


Dec. 


Pour off. 


Decoctum 


Dec. or decoct. 


Decoction 


De die in diem 


De d. in d. 


From day to day 


Detur or dentur 


Det., dent. 


Let there be given 


Diebus alternis 


Dieb. alt. 


Every other day 


Digere or digeretur 


Dig. 


Digest, or it may be 
digested 


Dispensetur or dispen- 


Disp. 


Let there be dispensed 


sentur 






Divide, dividatur, or divi- 


Div. or divid. 


Divide, or it may 


dendus, a, um 




be divided; to be 
divided 


Dolor 




Pain 


Dosis or doses 


Dos. 


Dose or doses 


Durante dolore 




While the pain lasts 



PREPOSITIONS, ETC 



391 



Latin Terms and Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions. 



Term or phrase. 


Abbreviation. 


Meaning. 


Ejusdem 


Ejusd. 


Of the same 


Emplastrum epispasticum 


Empl. epist. 


Blistering plaster 


Emplastrum lyttse 


Empl. lytt. 


Blistering plaster 


Emplastrum vesicans or 


Empl. vesic. 


Blistering plaster 


vesicatorium 






Enema 


En. 


An enema, a clyster 


Epistomium 


Epist. or epistom. 


A stopper 


Epistomium elasticum 


Epist. elast. 


A rubber stopper 


Epistomium vitreum 


Epist. vitr. 


Glass stopper 


Ex aqua 


Ex aq. 


From or with water 


Ex modo prsescripto 


e. m p. 


As directed 


Ex qua formentur 


Ex qua form. 


From which there may 
be formed 


Extende 


Extend. 


To spread 


Extende supra alutam 


Ext. sup. alut. 


Spread upon leather 


Extende supra corium 


Ext. sup. cor. 


Spread upon leather 


Fervidus, a, urn 


Ferv. 


Hot 


Fiat or fiant 


F. or ft. 


Let there be made 


Fiat lege artis 


F. 1. a. 


Let there be made ac- 
cording to (by the 
law of) art 


Fiat secundum artem 


F. s. a. 


Let there be made ac- 
cording to art 


Filtra 


Filt. 


Filter 


Flavus, a, um 


Flav. 


Yellow 


Fluidus, a, um 


Flu. 


Fluid 


Frigidus, a, um 


Frig. 


Cold 


Fuscus, a, um 




Brown 


Gargarisma 


Garg. 


Gargle 


Gradatim 




By degrees or gradu- 
ally 


Gramma or grammata 


Gm. 


Gramme or grammes 


Granum or grana 


Gr. 


Grain or grains 


Gutta or gutte 


Gtt. or gutt. 


Drop or drops 


Guttatim 


Guttat. 


By drops 


Haustus 


Haust. 


Draught 


Hora 


H. 


An hour 


Hora decubitus 


H. D. 


At the hour of going to 
bed 


Hora somnis 


Hor. somn. 


At bedtime 


Infunde 


Inf. 


Pour in, infuse 


Lege artis 


L. a. 


According to art 


Leviter 


Levit. 


Lightly 


Magnus, a, um 


Mag. 


Large 


Massa 


Mass. 


Mass 


Mica panis 


Mic. pan. 


Crumb of bread 


Minimum 


M. or min. 


A minim 



392 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



Latin Terms and Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions. 



Term or phrase. 


Abbreviation. 


Meaning. 


Misce bene 


M. bene 


Mix well 


Misce caute 


M. caute 


Mix cautiously 


Misce or misceantur 


M. or misc. 


Mix, or let them be 
mixed 


Mistura 


Mist. 


Mixture 


Mitte mittatur 


Mit. 


Send, or let there be 
sent 


Mitte or mittantur tale3 


Mit. tal. 


Send, or let there be 
sent, such 


Modicus, a, um 


Mod. 


Moderate (sized) 


Mora 




Delay 


More dictu 


More diet. 


In the manner directed 


Mortarium 




A mortar 


Niger, nigra, nigrum 


Nig. 


Black 


Non-repetatur 


Non-rep. 


It is not to be repeated 


Numero 


No. 


By or in number 


Obduce or obducatur 


Obduc. 


Cover, or let it be 
covered 


Obductus, a, um 


Obduct. 


Covered or coated 


Octarius 


0. 


Pint 


Oleosus, a, um 


Oleos. 


Oily or made of oil 


Oleum 


01. 


Oil 


011a 


on. 


Jar 


Omni hora 


Omn. hor. 


Every hour 


Omni mane 


Omn. man. 


Every morning 


Omni nocte 


Omn. noct. 


Every night 


Optimus, a, um 


Opt. 


Best 


Para, paretur, or paratus 


Par. 


Prepare, let it be pre- 
pared, or prepared 


Pars, or partes 


P. or part 


Part or parts 


Partes sequales 


P. or part. seq. 


Equal parts 


Parvus, a, um 


Parv. 


Small 


Pilula pilulse 


Pil. or pilul. 


Pill or pills 


Post cibum 


P. e. p. cib. or 
post. cib. 


After food 


Post prandium 


P. or post prand. 


After dinner 


Pro re nata 


P. r. n. 


As occasion arises; as 
needed; occasionally 


Pulvis or pulveres 


P. or pulv. 


Powder or powders 


Pulvis grossus 


Pulv. gross. 


Coarse powder 


Pulvis subtilissimus 


Pulv. subt. 


Very smooth powder 


Quantum libet or quantum 


Q. 1. or q. p. 


As much as you please 


placet 






Quantum satis, quantum 


Q. s. 


A sufficient quantity 


sufficit, or quantum suf- 






ficiat 






Quotidie 




Daily 



PREPOSITIONS, ETC 



393 



Latin Terms and Abbreviations Used in Prescriptions. 



Term or phrase. 


Abbreviation. 


Meaning. 


Recipe 


R., recip. 


Take thou 


Redactus in pulverem 


Red. in pulv. 


Let it be reduced to 








powder 


Repetatur 


Rept. 




Let it be repeated 


Ruber, rubra, rubrum 


Rub. 




Red 


Scatula 


Scat. 




Box 


Secundum artem 


S. a. 




According to art 


Secundum legem 


S. 1. 




According to law 


Semen or semina 


Sem. 




Seed 


Si opus sit 


Si op. 


sit. 


If it is best, necessary 


Signa or signature 


Sig. 




Mark (label), or let it 
be marked (labelled) 


Simplex 


Simp. 




Simple 


Singulorum 


Sing. 




Of each 


Solutio 


Sol. 01 


• solut. 


Solution 


Solve or solvatur 


S. or solv. 


Dissolve, or let it be dis- 








solved 


Spiritus vini rectificatus 


S. v. r 




Alcohol 


Spiritus vini tenuis 


S. v. t 




Diluted alcohol 


Spissus, a, um 


Spiss. 




Hard 


Statim 


Stat. 




Immediately 


Stilus 






Pencil, stick, or crayon 


Sume or sumatur 


Sum. 




Take, or let there be 
taken 


Talis or tales 


Tal. 




Such 


Ter in die 


T. or ter i. d. 


Three times a day 


Tere 


Ter. 




Rub or triturate 


Una 






Together 


Uncia 






An ounce 


Unctulus 






Besmeared, anointed 


Unguentum 


Ungt. 




Ointment 


Ustus, a, um 


Ust. 




Burned 


Ut dictum 


Ut diet. 


As directed 


Vitreus, a, um or vitrum 


Vitr. 




Of glass, or glass 




Cardinals. 




Unus ...... 


one 


Quindecim . 


. fifteen 


Duo 


two 


Sexdecim . 


sixteen 


Tres 


three 


Septemdecim 


seventeen 


Quatuor 


four 


Octodecim 01 


• duo de 






viginti 


. eighteen 


Quinque 


five 


Novemdecim 


or un de 






viginti 


nineteen 


Sex 


six 


Viginti . 


twenty 



394 



SYNOPSIS OF PRESCRIPTION LATIN 



Cardinals. 



Septem 



Octo eight 

Novem nine 

Decern ten 

Undecim eleven 

Duodecim twelve 

Tredecim thirteen Octoginta 

Quatuordecim .... fourteen Nonaginta 



Viginti unus or unus et 

viginti 

Trigenta 

Quadraginta 

Quinquaginta 

Sexaginta . 

Septuaginta 



twenty-one 

thirty 

forty 

fifty 

sixty 

seventy 

eighty 

ninety 



Centum one hundred 



CHAPTER XLVIII. 
DISPENSING. 

Dispzxsixg is the term applied to the preparation or 
compounding of medicines. Sometimes this involves 
the manufacture of a preparation from the drug, but 
usually it consists in putting together preparations 
previously made. The manufacture of pharmaceuticals 
should be conducted in a laboratory, especially con- 
structed for that purpose, while the dispensing should 
be done at a table or desk designed for this object alone. 
The general arrangement of the prescription table will 
be influenced largely by the contour of the building and 
the location of the desk. When possible the desk should 
be placed in a room by itself, so that the dispenser may 
be undisturbed while at work. Many plans have been 
devised for the construction of the prescription table, 
but in each case the personal equation necessarily plays 
an important part. The student is not expected to 
design a prescription table, and the pharmacist who 
contemplates doing so is advised to visit several pre- 
scription stores and combine the features best suited to 
Ins location. The prescription department of any good 
pharmacy should be its main feature, and receive the 
greatest attention. Let it be so situated that it will 
receive abundant light, but be not of easy access to 
customers, who are too apt to ask questions or attempt 



396 DISPENSING 

to converse with the operator while he is dispensing. 
These interruptions distract his attention and increase 
the liability of mistakes. The prescription table should 
be equipped with the best material. This applies not 
only to medicines, but also to boxes, glassware, corks, 
paper, etc. The patient frequently judges the contents 
of a package by its external appearance. A cheap 
label carelessly applied to a bottle or a box which is as 
carelessly wrapped will not tend to elevate one's opinion 
as to its contents. 

RECEIVING THE PRESCRIPTION. 

Where many prescriptions are being received, or when 
a prescription is to be called for later, it is advisable to 
give the customer a check. These checks should be 
printed especially for this purpose, and should be 
arranged in three parts, each part bearing the same num- 
ber and easily detached. The part passed to the patient 
may be in the form of a small card showing the business 
address. The other parts may be small with only the 
number. One of these should be attached to the pre- 
scription, but the remaining number should not be 
detached from the second until the prescription is 
compounded and wrapped, when the third check should 
be placed upon the outside of the package. Some 
pharmacists give the customer a check and write a 
corresponding number on the prescription. 

Never study a difficult or poorly written prescription 
in the presence of the patient, as he is then apt to ques- 
tion your ability to either read or compound it. 



COMPOUNDING PRESCRIPTIONS 397 



COMPOUNDING PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Upon receiving the prescription read it carefully, and 
do not attempt to compound it until you thoroughly 
understand it, noting the dose of each ingredient, and 
especially when the remedies are poisonous. In case 
there is an overdose, or that any obscurity renders it 
necessary to consult the prescriber, do so without 
arousing suspicion in the mind of the patient. Tell him 
that the prescription will be ready in a given time and 
ask him to call again, or say that you will deliver the 
prescription. Use tact and judgment when calling the 
attention of a physician to an error, otherwise it may 
result in the loss of his patronage. Most physicians are 
reasonable, and will appreciate your kindness in calling 
attention to an error. By law the pharmacist is equally 
responsible with the physician for dispensing a mistake 
made by the latter. In some cases many physicians 
prescribe unusually large doses, and such quantities 
should be indicated by writing out the amounts in 
addition to the usual methods, or by placing several 
exclamation points after the quantities that the pharma- 
cist may know that this dose was intentional. 

As to the order of writing the label and compounding 
the prescription there are two methods, each having its 
advantages. Some number the prescription and write 
the label first, then compound. This affords the dis- 
penser an opportunity to familiarize himself with the 
prescription, and also permits the ink to dry before 
applying the label to the bottle. The other method is 



398 DISPENSING 

to compound the prescription and then write the label. 
With this method there is less danger of placing the 
wrong label upon a bottle or box. Serious mistakes 
have occurred by placing upon a liniment bottle a 
label intended for a mixture to be taken internally. 
When possible it is advisable to work upon but one 
prescription at a time. However, it often happens 
that a mixture must stand for a time, and in that case 
the dispenser may work upon another prescription. In 
such cases the careful pharmacist leaves the prescription 
with the mixture. Most important of all, the dispenser 
should concentrate his mind upon his work. Make it a 
practice, not only when dispensing but when manufac- 
turing, to always read the label three times— once when 
taking the container, once when weighing the amounts, 
and again when returning the container to its proper 
place. Also note the appearance of the substance, as a 
mistake may thus be prevented. There is no excuse for 
dispensing morphine sulphate for quinine sulphate, even 
though it has been so labelled, as quinine is a soft and 
pliable substance, while morphine crystals break with a 
slight noise when pressed or cut. 

When dispensing incompatible liquids study to mix 
them in the order producing the least precipitation, and 
keep the precipitate in as finely divided condition as 
possible. It is usually best to dissolve salts before plac- 
ing them in a bottle. When more solids are prescribed 
than will dissolve, do not dissolve them with heat, as they 
will crystallize out On cooling. Reduce to fine powder 
before adding to the liquid and dispense with a shake 
label. When the solid settles quickly it may be per mis- 



COMPOUNDING PRESCRIPTIONS 399 

sible to add a little acacia or tragacanth to hold it in 
suspension while the dose is being measured. Try to 
dispense liquids as clear as possible. Filter eye washes, 
and keep solutions and bottles sterilized. Use the best 
quality of corks, and select one of such size that the 
smaller end will just enter the neck of the bottle. With 
a little pressure it may be forced sufficiently far to hold 
without requiring a cork screw to remove it. 

Use a cork press when necessary, but never compress 
a cork between the teeth. Avoid dispensing a partially 
filled bottle, as patients are often apt to imagine that they 
are being defrauded of a portion of their medicine. 

Labelling. — A few pharmacists write all labels with 
the typewriter. This plan has the advantage of dis- 
tinctness, but there are those who do not like the appear- 
ance of a typewritten label. Let the inferior penman 
use the typewriter, but the good penman does not require 
this assistance. However, many inferior penmen are, 
with practice, enabled to write a label both neat and 
distinct, and this should always be accomplished when 
possible. First, number the prescription, placing the 
number upon the upper right hand corner, with the 
date underneath. Follow this with the price charged 
for the medicine. The author prefers to use a triplicate 
numbering machine, stamping the number first upon the 
prescription, then upon the label, also upon the back of 
the label, if it is for a bottle, or, if for a box, upon the 
bottom of the box. In case of renewal this enables one 
to find the right prescription even if one number is 
destroyed. In case of two or more boxes having been 
ordered for the same patient, it enables the patient to 



400 DISPENSING 

keep the right cover upon the right box. Never place 
one label over another. In case of renewals the old label 
may be easily removed by placing a wet cloth or blotter 
over the label for a few minutes. It may be more quickly 
removed by warming over a gas flame, as the vapor 
from the moist blotter quickly penetrates the label. 
On bottles, place the label above the middle, see that it 
is straight, then, placing a thin paper over it, smooth it 
down by rubbing from the centre to the edges. Mixtures 
containing suspended particles should bear a "shake 
label" placed above the regular label. If placed at the 
bottom it may be overlooked, especially as sometimes 
the wrapper is removed from the top of the bottle only. 
Place labels for external use in the same position, and 
these should be placed on all bottles containing sub- 
stances for such use. Prescriptions containing poisons 
should not be labelled poison unless so directed by the 
physician. If the prescription is one difficult to com- 
pound, or one whose ingredients require special order in 
mixing or manipulation, these facts should be plainly 
stated upon the prescription. Thus, in case of renewal 
it can be duplicated, otherwise a slight change may 
cause the patient both annoyance and suspicion. When 
a prescription is put up it should be signed by the dis- 
penser and passed to a second person. The dispenser 
should state from memory the names of the ingredients 
he has compounded and the amounts of each. Let the 
helper observe whether the statement corresponds with 
the prescription, and also compare the label with the 
directions and number upon the prescription. He 
should then place his initials upon the prescription, to 



COMPOUNDING PRESCRIPTIONS 401 

indicate by whom it was checked. As soon as the pre- 
scription is compounded it should be immediately neatly 
wrapped. A good quality of paper should be employed 
and only sufficient used to make a neat package. The 
best method of wrapping a box or a bottle is to proceed 
much as in folding packages, except to seal the ends 
with wax. For this purpose, do not use ordinary sealing 
wax, as it is too hard. A good formula is as follows: 
Rosin, 8 parts; yellow wax, 1 part; Venice or Canada 
turpentine, 1 part, and color to please the taste. How- 
ever, do not use black sealing wax, as it is inadvisable to 
suggest a funeral while the patient is yet able to take 
his medicine. 

Cleaning Utensils. — It is of the greatest importance 
that every article about the prescription table or room 
should be scrupulously clean. Graduates, mortars, etc., 
when once used should be immediately cleansed and 
restored to their proper places. Oils or fats may be 
removed from the mortar by rubbing with sawdust or 
soft paper. Dampened newspapers will prove better 
than dry ones. This treatment should be followed by a 
liberal allowance of soap and water. For the removal 
of particles from the inside of bottles, use very coarse 
sand or fine gravel. If shot is used, the bottles should 
be finally rinsed with nitric acid to remove adhering 
particles of lead. A mixture of sulphuric acid with a 
solution of potassium or sodium dichromate is invalu- 
able for the removal of organic matter from the interior 
of flasks or bottles. For scouring mortars, etc., pow- 
dered pumice stone or whiting is commonly used, but 
in most cases bone ash is more successful. The dis- 
26 



402 DISPENSING 

agreeable odor of substances, as iodoform and assaf etida, 
may be removed both from the hands and utensils by 
rubbing with linseed meal. 

OWNERSHIP OF THE PRESCRIPTION. 

This question has caused endless discussion, and 
various decisions have been rendered. It is still a mooted 
question. However, there should be but one answer, 
and that is that the prescription is a written order to 
some pharmacist to be filled. The pharmacist, having 
filled the order, should keep the prescription on his own 
file for his own protection. Should the patient request 
the original, the pharmacist should offer a copy unless for- 
bidden to do so by the physician. In some States the 
law requires that prescriptions calling for certain sub- 
stances shall be kept on file for a period of five years, 
and that no copy shall be given. Some physicians 
direct that their prescriptions shall never be copied or 
refilled without their order. 

REFILLING OF PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Upon this subject the pharmacist uses his discretion. 
Some pharmacists refill every prescription presented, 
while others refuse to refill any prescription calling for 
habit-forming drugs like morphine or cocaine. Doubt- 
less many other drugs should be placed under the ban, 
as many cases of broken health are due to the continued 
use of what seemed to be only a harmless medicine. 



FILING PRESCRIPTIONS 403 



FILING PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Numerous methods have been suggested for keeping 
prescriptions on file, but only a few will be here con- 
sidered. Doubtless the oldest method is the scrap-book 
form, where the prescriptions were literally pasted in a 
book. The objection to this method is the time required 
to paste them in, and in case of renewal the dispenser 
must have open before him a large book which occupies 
the valuable space of the prescription table. Another 
method is to file them in cases of 1000 each, with a special 
card, marked with the hundred number, between each 
hundred. Some prefer to place each hundred in a 
manila envelope and keep these envelopes in a case, or 
better still in a sectional filing cabinet. Others fasten 
together the prescriptions from each day's work, and 
enclose them in a manila wrapper, stamping the date upon 
the outside. A convenient method is to file them like 
cards in a filing case, with the number between each 
hundred. When a prescription is taken out for renewal 
a marker of colored cardboard may be inserted in its 
place. 



CHAPTER XLIX. 

INCOMPATIBILITIES. 

A few generalizations may assist one in remembering 
incompatibilities, but the best method of attaining 
proficiency is to acquire a knowledge of the physical, 
chemical, and physiological properties of the substances 
dispensed. For this reason the subject should not be 
studied until one has had at least one course in qual- 
itative analysis and pharmaceutical manufacturing, 
accompanied by a study of pharmacopceial preparations. 
Numberless incompatibilities may theoretically occur, 
but those actually occurring are comparatively few. 
Incompatibilities are divided into three classes — thera- 
peutic, pharmaceutical, and chemical. 

THERAPEUTIC INCOMPATIBILITIES. 

If one drug have a stimulating and another a depress- 
ing effect upon the heart, they are said to be therapeu- 
tically incompatible, because their medicinal actions are 
antagonistic to one another. Since this is a question 
purely of medicinal effect, it comes more properly 
within the scope of the physician than that of the phar- 
macist. Hence, upon this point the latter should not 
presume to question the knowledge of the former. This 



PHARMACEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES 405 

is especially true when we remember that drugs thera- 
peutically incompatible with one another when given in 
full doses may produce most beneficial effects admin- 
istered in smaller ones. 

PHARMACEUTICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES. 

These are more properly called physical incompati- 
bilities, because they are produced by physical changes 
occurring while compounding. For instance, an alco- 
holic tincture of a resinous drug is precipitated without 
chemical change by mixing with an aqueous prepara- 
tion. This class of incompatibilities is of the most 
frequent occurrence, and the drug requires skill in com- 
pounding. By careful study of physical incompati- 
bilities it will be observed that they are due to the 
insolubility of the substance in the resulting compound, 
consequently a thorough knowledge of the solubilities of 
substances in various solvents and combinations of sol- 
vents is essential. In a work of this kind it is imprac- 
ticable to enter into a study of the solubility of individual 
substances, but a few general statements may be made, 
accounting for nearly all physical incompatibilities. 

Gums, mucilaginous or albuminous substances are 
soluble in water, but insoluble in from 55 to 85 per 
cent, alcohol. Many inorganic salts soluble in water 
are insoluble or only sparingly soluble in alcohol. 
Therefore, aqueous solutions of many of the above sub- 
stances are precipitated by the addition of alcohol. 

Resins, balsams, and stereoptines and most volatile 
oils are soluble in alcohol but sparingly soluble in water. 



40G INCOMPATIBILITIES 

For this reason these and almost all strong alcoholic 
fluidextracts and tinctures are precipitated by water. 

Most free alkaloids are soluble in alcohol but insoluble 
in water, while the salts of the alkaloids are soluble in 
water. 

DISPENSING PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES. 

Proper dispensing prevents many incompatibilities, 
but if impossible to prevent separation, the dispenser 
should endeavor to produce a homogeneous preparation, 
or one capable of easily mixing by agitation. It is, 
therefore, important that all precipitates should be as 
finely divided as possible. Cold dilute solutions yield 
finer precipitates than hot concentrated ones. The 
order of mixing also exerts a decided influence upon 
the resulting precipitate. When resinous tinctures or 
fluidextracts are prescribed with an aqueous fluid, they 
should be added in a thin stream to the aqueous liquid 
with gentle agitation. Violent agitation frequently causes 
the precipitate to adhere to the sides of the bottle. 

When solutions of gums or albuminous substances are 
to be mixed with alcoholic solutions, the alcoholic 
solutions should be added to the gum or albuminous 
solutions until a permanent precipitate commences to 
form. Then reverse the operation. In some cases 
precipitation may be prevented entirely by diluting the 
solutions, or by first mixing antagonistic solutions with 
some other ingredient prescribed with them. 

Incompatibilities may arise from mixing two nearly 
saturated solutions of substances differing in degrees 
of solubility. The most soluble salt will take the solvent 



DISPENSING PHYSICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES 407 

from the less soluble one, thus causing precipitation of 
the latter. This may be prevented by diluting the 
solutions before mixing. 

When aromatic waters are used as solvents for inor- 
ganic salts, the aromatic principle is frequently thrown 
out of solution. 

Alcoholic solutions of organic substances frequently 
separate into two immiscible layers upon the addition of 
some inorganic salt, as when chloral hydrate and some 
of the bromides or chlorides are dissolved in an elixir. 
If the solution be stronger than about ten grains of each 
to the drachm, chloral alcoholate will separate. This 
may be prevented by diluting the solution and increas- 
ing the dose proportionately. 

In cases where a salt is precipitated or prevented from 
passing into solution by the presence of alcohol, the 
difficulty may be overcome by the addition of water. 
However, if by so doing the bulk of the prescription be 
increased, the dose must be proportionately increased. 
Such a change should be noted on the prescription and 
communicated to the physician. Sometimes it may be 
possible to substitute one solvent for another without 
materially changing the bulk or action of the prescription. 
For instance, the prescription calls for more than 25 gr. 
of boric acid to the ounce of water; the acid cannot be 
dissolved except with the aid of heat, and then a part 
will crystallize out upon cooling, but the substitution of 
glycerin for a part of the water retains the whole in 
solution. The same is true of phenol, in which case 
alcohol or glycerin may be substituted for a portion of 
the water. In cases where it is not permissible to change 
the solvent or to increase its volume, the substance 



408 INCOMPATIBILITIES 

should not be dissolved by heat, as the excess crystallizes 
in large crystals or compact masses incapable of mixing 
by agitation. It should be finely powdered, so that it 
may be easily diffused throughout the mixture. When 
the insoluble portion or precipitate is light, it is some- 
times held in suspension by the addition of sugar or 
syrup. If heavy, tragacanth is better, and if prescribed 
with resinous tinctures or fluidextracts, they should be 
placed with the powdered tragacanth in a dry bottle 
and shaken together. Then the water should be added 
in divided portions and emulsified by agitation. Many 
solid substances like chloral, camphor, menthol, thymol, 
salol, antipyrine, acetanilide, etc., become damp or form 
liquids when triturated together. Some of these form 
chemical compounds, while others are considered as 
physical changes, or at least form such feeble combina- 
tions that they may be separated by ordinary solvents. 
Incompatibilities such as these cannot easily be pre- 
vented, but when they become only damp the addition 
of some absorbent powder helps to retain them in pow- 
dered form. 1 

CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES. 

As the name implies, this class of incompatibilities 
arises from the action of two or more substances upon 
one another, forming new compounds. However, all 
chemical changes should not be considered as incom- 
patibilities. Generally the term is applied to those only 
which are undesirable or unintentional. Physicians 

1 For table of dry solids that act upon each other see Ruddi- 
man's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions, p. 269. 



CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITIES 409 

formerly prescribed salicylic acid and sodium bicar- 
bonate together, intending to produce sodium salicylate. 
This cannot be considered an incompatibility. Chemi- 
cal incompatibilities usually make themselves known 
by the formation of a precipitate, or an insoluble com- 
pound, by effervescence, or by a change in color. 
Chemical changes frequently take place in prescriptions, 
and pass unnoticed without any of the above changes 
becoming manifest. If the changes be slight, it is cus- 
tomary to dispense the prescription in the best possible 
manner, but if the new compound be physiologically 
different from that prescribed, and especially when sub- 
stances actively poisonous are formed, the physician 
should be consulted. In cases where the chemical 
action is weak, it may be prevented, or, at least, the 
resultant compound may be held in solution by the 
addition of syrup or glycerin. This is true of alkaline 
earths, many metallic oxides and hydroxides, and some 
organic and inorganic salts. A very common incom- 
patibility is the liberation of carbon dioxide from car- 
bonates by the addition of substances containing acids. 
When carbonate of ammonia is prescribed with syrup 
of squill the acetic acid in the syrup liberates the carbon 
dioxide. In this and in all similar cases where gas is 
evolved the mixture should be made in a mortar. If 
the reaction be very slow, the mixture should be heated 
until the reaction ceases before putting in a bottle; 
otherwise the accumulation of gas may burst the bottle 
or blow out the cork. 

Strong oxidizing agents, like potassium chlorate, 
permanganates, chromic acids, and silver salts, should 



410 INCOMPATIBILITIES 

be cautiously mixed with organic matter, as violent 
explosions are apt to occur. When it is necessary to 
mix them, powder separately and mix on paper with a 
horn or wooden spatula. 

A frequent source of incompatibilities is the combina- 
tion of alkaloidal salts with alkalies or alkaline car- 
bonates resulting in the precipitation of the free alka- 
loids. Combined with iodides and the bromides, they 
form insoluble alkaloidal salts; or with other metallic 
salts, they form insoluble double salts. In such cases 
the presence of about 15 per cent, of alcohol prevents 
the precipitation. 

Tannic acid and vegetable astringents precipitate 
alkaloids, glucosides, albumin, and gelatin. It also 
forms inky compounds with nearly all iron salts, and 
insoluble tannates with many other inorganic salts. 

Spirits of nitrous ether soon becomes acid on standing 
and should be neutralized before dispensing with 
alkaline iodide or bromide. Otherwise iodine or bro- 
mine will be liberated. The ethyl nitrate in the spirits 
is decomposed by alkaline hydrates and forms new com- 
pounds with some organic bases. With morphine it 
produces a yellow color. Nitrosomorphine and pseudo- 
morphine are said to be formed. With antipyrine in acid 
solutions it forms the green isonitroso-antipyrine. With 
fresh tincture of guaiac it assumes a blue color, which 
soon changes to red. 

Almost numberless chemical incompatibilities may be 
formed. For a more detailed study of the subject, the 
student is referred to Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in 
Prescriptions. 



INDEX, 



Abbreviations used in pre- 
scriptions, 388 
Absorbent powders, 312 
Acacia as absorbent, 313 

as emulsifier, 206, 207 

as pill excipient, 310 

mucilage, 199 

syrup of, 210 
Aceta, 219 

Acid phosphates, solution, 193 
Acme capsule filler, 327 
Aconite assay, 358 

fluidextract, 245 

tincture, 232 
Adapters, 94 
Adjectives, 387 

Albuminate of iron solution, 191 
Alcohol as fuel, 66, 67 

stoves, 67 
Alcohols in volatile oils, assay 

of, 368 
Aldehvdes, assav. 366 
Alembic, 100 

Alkaline antiseptic solution, 190 
Alkaloids, 354 
Aloes, decoction compound, 198 

and iron pills, 317 

and mastic pills, 317 

tincture, 232 
Aluminum acetate solution, 189 

aceto-tartrate solution, 189 
American Dispensatory, 19 
Ammonium, acetate solution, 
180 

aromatic spirits, 226 

citrate solution, 190 



Ammonium, concentrated solu- 
tion, 190 

iodide liniment, 263 

liniment, 262 

valerate elixir, 224 
Amorphous substances, 169 
Amyl nitrate, assay, 363 
Analysis, volumetric, 346 
Anodyne, Hoffmann's, 225 
Antiseptic solution, 181 
Apothecaries' weights, origin, 22 

table, 24 
Apparatus for combustion, 68 
Aquae, 177 
Areometers, 51 
Arsenous acid solution, 180 

and mercuric iodide solu- 
tion, 181 
Assay of aconite, 358 

alcohols in volatile oils, 368 

amyl nitrite, 363 

cinchona, 359 

cineol, 370 

colchicum, 360 

conium, 358 

formaldehyde, 364 

hydrogen dioxide, 363 

of jalap, 361 

methods, 353, 357 

nitrous ether, 361 

mix vomica, 359 

opium, 360 

pancreatin, 365 

pepsin, 365 

phenols in volatile oils, 370 

volatile oils, 366 
Approximate equivalents of 
weights and measures, 28 



412 



INDEX 



Approximate measures, 44 
Avordupois weights, 22 
table, 24 



B 



Balances, 30 

box, 34 

compound lever, 33, 35 

how to test, 32 

prescription, 31 

single beam, 32 

solution, 35 

specific gravity, 58 

torsion, 36, 37 

unequal arm, 34, 35 
Balsams, 232, 256 
Baths, air, 84 

glycerin, 84 

oil, 84 

salt, 84 

sand, 84 

steam, 82 

w r ater, 81 
Baume degrees, to convert to 
specific gravity degrees, 
54 

hydrometers, 54 
Belladonna, fluidextract, 245 

tincture, 232 
Benzoin tincture, compound, 

232 
Blast lamps, 72 
Boiling points, 79 
Boluses, 308 
Brayera infusion, 196 
Bumping, 99 
Burners, Bunsen, 68 

gas, 68 

safety, 71 



Cacao butter in suppositories, 

283 
Cachets, 301 

Calabar bean, tincture, 235 
Calcination, 108 



Calcium hydroxide solution, 181 

iodide syrup, 217 

lactophosphate syrup, 213 
Cantharidal collodion, 258 
Capsules, gelatin, 324 

soft, 328 

suppositories, 293 
Carbasus, 342 
Carbonization, 108 
Carter's hydrometers, 55 
I Cataplasma, 277 
| Centinormal solution, 347 
Centrifugal machines, 168 
Cerata, 266 
| Cerate, blistering, 274 

preparation of, 269 
! Cerates, 266 
Chemical incompatibilities, 408 

solutions, 148 
Chloride of iron, tincture, 233 
Chlorinated potassa solution, 
193 

soda solution, 187 
Chlorine solution, compound, 
182 

water, 182 
Chopper, universal food, 143 
Cinchona assay, 359 

fluidextract, 246 

infusion, 196 

tincture, 232 
comp., 232 
Cinchonidine, solubility in 

ether, 359 
Cinchonine, solubility in ether, 

359 
Cineol, 370 

Circulatory displacement, 149 
Citric acid syrup, 213 
Citrine ointment, 273 
Clarification, 128 
Clarified honey, 199 
Cleaning utensils, 401 
Coating pills, 319 
Coca, fluidextract, 246 
Cochineal indicator, 350 
Colation, 109 
Colchicum assay, 360 

fluidextract, 245 

tincture, 233 



INDEX 



413 



Collodia, 257 
Collodions, 257 

cantharidal, 258 

flexible, 257 

styptic, 258 
Colloids, 172 
Colloxylin, 342 
Colocynth extract, compound, 

251 
Colophony, use in cerates, 268 
Comminution, 134 
Compounding prescriptions, 397 
Computing specific gravity, 

note on, 58 
Condensers, 92 

reflux, 93 

spiral or worm, 93 

Squibb 's upright, 93 
Confections, 341 
Conium fluidextract, 246 
Contusion, 135 
Copaiba mixtures, 202 
Cotton, medicated, 342 

styptic, 342 
Creasol solution, compound, 182 
Crystallization, causes of, 169 

water of, 171 
Crystalline substances, 169 
Crystalloids, 172 _ 
Cutting and bending glass, 96 



D 



Decantation, 124 
Decinormal solution, 347 
Declension of Latin nouns, 378 
Decocta, 197 
Decoctions, 156, 197 

aloes, compound, 198 

Irish moss, 198 

sarsaparilla, comp., 198 
Decoloration, 129 
Decrepitation, water of, 171 
Density, 46 

Deposits in fluidextracts, 239 
Desiccation, 107 
Destructive distillation, 99 
Determination of solubilities, 
150 



Diadermatic vehicles, 269 
Dialysate, 172 
Dialysis, 172 
Dialyzers, 172 
Diffusate, 172 
Digestion, 156 
Digitalis, infusion, 195 
Dispensatory, 18 

American, 18 

National Standard, 18 

United States, 18 
Dispensing, 395 
Displacement, circulatory, 149 
Distillation, 91 

destructive, 99 

fractional, 98 

steam, 97 
Droppers, medicine, 45 



E 



Effervescing powders, 305 
Eichhorn's areopycnometer, 55 
Electric stoves, 71 
Electuaries, 341 
Elixiria, 222 
Elixirs, 222 

adjuvant, 223 

ammonium valerate, 224 

aromatic, 223 

digestive, 224 

gentian, 224 

pepsin, bismuth, and 
strychnine, 224 

phosphates of iron, quinine, 
and strychnine, 223 

salicylic acid, 224 
Elutriation, 146 
Emplastra, 281 
Emulsa, 204 
Emulsifying agents, 202 
Emulsions, artificial, 205 

camphor, menthol, etc., 
208 

Continental method, 207 

English method, 206 

fats, wax, etc., 208 

fixed oils, 206 

gum resins, 206 



414 



INDEX 



Emulsions, lvcopodium and 
lupulin, 209 

natural, 205 

preservation, 209 

resinous substances, 208 

seed, 205 

volatile oil, 208 
Emulsifiers, mechanical, 209 
Endermatic vehicles, 269 
Enteric pills, 321 
Epidermatic vehicles, 269 
Ergot, fluidextract, 252 
Ether, compound spirits, 225 
Eureka tablet machine, 333 
Evaporation, spontaneous, 87 

use of heat, 88 

of volatile solvents, 356 
Excipient for pills, 310 
Exsiccation, 108 
Extracta, 248 
Extract colocynth comp., 257 

ergot, 252 

licorice, pure, 252 

nux vomica, 252 

opium, 252 
Extraction, 156 
Extracts, 248 

method of manufacture, 
248 

preservation, 249 

table of, 250 

variation in strength, 249 



F 

Fahrenheit's hydrometer, 55 

thermometers, 73 
Ferric chloride solution, 182 

subsulphate solution, 184 

sulphate solution, 184 
Ferrous carbonate pills, 318 

chloride solution, 192 

iodide pills, 318 
solution, 192 
Filing prescriptions, 403 
Filter pumps, 119 
Filters, Fessenden's, 113 

folding, 111 

hardened, 111 

Rother's, 111 



Filtration, 108 

continuous, 115 

hot, 116 

rapid, 118 
Flexible collodion, 267 
Fluidextract of aconite, 245 

belladonna root, 245 

cinchona, 246 

coca, 246 

colchicum seed, 245 

conium, 246 

guarana, 246 

Hydrastis, 246 

hyoscyamus, 245 

ipecac, 245 

licorice, 243 

nux vomica, 245 

pilocarpus, 246 

Prunus Virginiana, 247 

rhamnus purshiana aro- 
matic, 246 

sarsaparilla compound, 247 

scopola, 245 

senega, 245 

senna, 246 

stramonium, 246 

taraxacum, 246 

triticum, 246 
Fluidextracta, 236 
Fluidextracts, 236 

deposits in, 239 

fractional percolation, 239 

official method, 236 

repercolation, 237 

table of, 240 
Fluid measure, 25 
Fomentation, 278 
Formaldehyde assay, 364 

solution, 184 
Fractional distillation, 98 

percolation, 239 
Fuels, 66 

Fumigating pastiles, 339 
Funnels, 114 

Buechner's, 122 



G 



Garbling, 134 
Gas as fuel, 68 



INDEX 



415 



Gas burners and stoves, 68 
Gases, solution of, 153 
Gauze, medicated, 342 
Gav-Lussac's hydrometer, 53 
Gelatin pill coating, 322 
General pill excipient, 312 
Gentian elixir, 224 
Glonoin spirits, 227 
Glucose syrup for pill excipient, 

310 
Glycerita, 259 
Glvcerites, 259 

bismuth, 260 

boroglycerin, 259 

carbolic acid, 260 

guaiac, 261 

hvdrastis, 260 

phenol, 260 

phosphates of iron, quinine, 
and strychnine, 260 

starch, 259 

tannic acid, 259 
Glyceryl trinitrate, spirits, 227 
Glycyrrhiza, nuidextract, 247 

extract pure, 252 
Gossvpium, 342 - .-, & • 
Graduates, 41, 42 
Granular effervescent salts, 90 
Granulation, 90, 170 
Granules, 308 
Grommets, 89 
Gross weight, 40 
Guarana, nuidextract, 246 



H 



Hematoxylin indicator, 350 
Honev as pill excipient, 311 
Honeys, 199 
Hydrastis, nuidextract, 246 

tincture, 233 
Hydrogen dioxide assay, 363 
Hydrometers, 51 
Hvoscvamus nuidextract, 245 

tincture, 233 
Hypodermic tablets, 337 
Hvpophosphites svrup comp. 
'215 



I 



Immiscible solvents, 153, 352 
Imperial measure, 25 
Incineration, 108 
Incompatibilities, 404 

in tablets, 330 
Indicators, 349 

cochineal, 350 

hematoxylin, 350 

phenolphthalein, 349, 350 
Infusa, 194 
Infusions, 156, 194 

of brayera, 196 

cinchona, 196 

digitalis, 195 

pot, 194 

rose, 196 

senna compound, 196 
stronger, 196 

wild cherry bark, 195 
Inspissated juices, 253 
Interstitial water, 171 
Iodide of iron, syrup, 214 

tasteless syrup, 217 
Iodine compound solution, 185 

tincture, 233 
Ipecac, nuidextract, 245 

and opium powder, 314 
tincture, 233 

syrup, 215 
Irish moss, decoction, 198 
Iron and ammonium acetate, 
183 

mixture, 200 

quinine and strychnine 
elixir of the phosphates, 
223 

saccharated syrup, 217 



Jalap assay, 361 
Juices, inspissated, 253 



K 

Keratin coated pills, 321 
Konseals, 301 



416 



INDEX 



Labelling prescriptions, 399 

Lactucarinm, tincture, 234 

Lamels, 337 

Lamps, blast, 72 

Lard in ointments, etc., 266, 267 

Latin pronunciation, 376 

terms and abbreviations, 
388 
Lead subacetate solution, 185 
diluted solution, 186 
Lemon tincture, 234 
Leucomaines, 344 
Levigation, 137 

Licorice mixture, compound, 
201 

powder, compound, 304 
Lime syrup, 214 

water, 181 
Liniment ammonia, 262 

of ammonium iodide, 263 

soap, 262 

turpentine, 263 

volatile, 262 
Linimenta, 262 
Liniments, 262 
Liquores, 180 
Lixiviation, 157 
Lozenge cutters, 340 
Lozenges gelatin, 339 

chocolate, 341 
Lubricants for tablets, 331 
Lutes, 95 
Lysimeter, 151 



M 



Maceration, 156 

Magnesium citrate solution, 185 

sulphate, effervescent solu- 
tion, 192 
Marc, 157 

Mead's disintegrator, 142 
Measures, 41 

Imperial, 25 

wine or fluid, 25 
Medicated cotton, 342 

gauze, 342 



Medicated wines, 221 
Medicinal honeys, 199 
Mellita, 199 
Melting point determinations, 

76 
Menstruum, 157 
Mercurial ointment, 273 
Metric system, 26 
origin, 26 
table, 28 
Metrology, 21 

origin and development, 21 
Mills, ball or pebble, 143 

Bogardus eccentric, 140 

Chaser, 142 

drug, 138 

Hance, 141 

Swift, 140 
Misturse, 200 
Mixer and sifter, 145 
Mixtures, 200 

copaiba, 202 

iron compound, 200 

licorice compound, 201 

rhubarb and soda, 201 
Mohr specific gravity balance, 

58 
Mortar and pestle, 296 
Mother liquor, 170 
Moxas, 341 
Mucilage of acacia, 199 

of tragacanth, 200 
Mucilages, 199 
Mulls, 281 



N 



National Formulary, 18 

Standard Dispensatory, 18 
Net weight, 40 
Neutral mixture, 186 
Nicholson's rrydrometer, 55 
Nitrate of mercury ointment, 
273 

solution, 184 
Nitroglycerin, spirits, 227 
Nitrous ether assay, 361 

spirits, 225 
Normal solutions, 346, 347 



INDEX 



417 



Nux vomica assay, 359 
extract, 252 
fmidextract, 245 
tincture, 234 



Ointment, citrine, 273 

mercury, 273 

potassium iodide, 274 

rose water, 273 

tar, 274 
Ointments, 266 

and cerates, dispensing, 272 
preparation, 269 
preservation, 469 
vehicles for, 266 
Oleata, 263 
Oleates, 263 _ 

preparation, 264 

normal, 263 
Oleoresinse, 254 
Oleoresins, 254 

of black pepper, 255 

cubebs, 255 

ginger, 255 

lupulin, 255 

male fern, 254 

red pepper, 255 
Oleosacchara, 307 
Opium assay, 360 

extract, 252 

tincture, 234 

vinegar, 219 
Orbicules, 337 

Ownership of prescriptions, 402 
Oxy sulphate solution, 192 



Pancreatin assay, 365 

as pill excipient, 313 
Paraffin, 268 
Parvules, 308 
Pastse, 276 
Pastes, 276 
Pastiles, 341 
Pearl coating, 320>£ . 
27 



Pencils medicated, 294 

paste, 294 
Pepsin assay, 365 

as pill excipient, 313 
Peptonate of iron solution, 191 
Percentage solutions, 154 
Percolation, 157 

continuous, 163 

fractional, 162 

pressure, 166 

of volatile liquids, 163 
Petrolatum as pill excipient, 312 

vehicle for ointments, 268 
Pharmacopoeia, 17 
Pharmacopoeia 1 convention, time 
of meeting, 17 

incompatibilities, 405 

infusions, 195 
Pharmacy, 17 
Phenolphthalein indicator, 349, 

350 
Phenols in volatile oils, assav of, 

370 
Phosphates svrup compound. 

218 
Phosphorus pills, 312, 318 
Physical incompatibilities, 405 

dispensing of, 406 
Pills, 308 

aloes and iron, 317 
and mastic, 317 

carbonate of iron, 318 

coated with keratin, 321 

coaters, 323 

coating, 319 

enteric, 321 

excipient, 310 
general, 312 

of ferrous iodide, 318 

gelatin coating, 322 

mass formation of, 313 

pearl coating, 320 

sugar coating, 320 

tolu coating, 319 
Pilocarpus, fluidextract, 246 
Pilule, 308 
Pipettes, 43 
Plasma, 275 
Plasmas, 275 
Plasters, 279, 280 



418 



INDEX 



Plugs, Politzer, 343 
Plummets use in taking specific 

gravity, 57 
Podophyllin, 256 
Politzer plugs, 343 
Porphyrization, 138 
Potassium arsenite solution, 186 

borotartrate as pill ex- 
cipient, 311 

citrate solution, 186 

hydroxide solution, 187 

iodide ointment, 274 
Poultices, 277 
Powders, 298 

absorbent, 312 

compound effervescent, 303 

dispensing, 297 

dividers, 298, 299 

effervescent, 305 

folding, 300 

licorice compound, 304 

rhubarb compound, 304 
Precipitates, physical character, 
131 

washing, 132 
Precipitation, 130, 170 

causes of, 130 

fractional, 133 
Prescription, 371 

balances, 31,32, 33, 34 

checking, 396 

compounding, 397 

labelling, 398 
Presses, drug, 167, 168 
Pressure filtration, 121 
Prunus virginiana, fluidextract, 
247 

infusion, 195 

syrup, 215 
Ptomaines, 344 
Pulveres, 296 
Pulverization by intervention, 

137 
Pyroxylin, 342 

Q 

Quinidia, solubility in ether, 

359 
Quinine, solubility in ether, 359 



R 



Rectification, 99 
Refilling of prescriptions, 402 
Reflux condensers, 93 
Remington capsule machine, 

326 
Repercolation, 162 
Resin of jalap, 256 

podophyllum, 256 

scammony, 256 
Resinse, 255 
Resins, 255 
Rhamnus purshiana, aromatic 

extract, .246 
Rhubarb, aromatic syrup, 216 

compound powder, 314 

and soda mixture, 201 
Richter's hydrometer, 54 
Rose compound infusion, 196 

confection, 311 

syrup, 216 
Rosin, 256 
Rosseau's densimeter, 55 



Saccharometer, 54 

Safety burners, 71 

Salicylic acid elixir, 224 

Salts, granular effervescent, 
305 

Sarsaparilla decoction com- 
pound, 198 
fluidextract compound, 247 

Saturated solution, 148 

Saturates, tablet, 337 

Scopola fluidextract, 245 

Seed emulsions, 205 

Seidlitz powders, 303 

Senna infusion compound, 196 
fluidextract, 246 

Separators, 126, 127 

Shells, cacao butter for sup- 
positories, 293 

Sieves, 144 

Sifting, 144 

Siphon, 125 

Soap as absorbent, 313 



INDEX 



419 



Soap as pill excipient. 311 
liniment. 263 

Sodium arsenate. 188 

borate solution comp.. 193 
hydroxide solution. 1ST 
phosphate solution comp.. 

. I? 8 
Solubilities, determination. 150 

Solution. 147 

aids to. 148 

of albuminate of iron. 191 

of aluminum acetate. 1 S9 

of ammonium acetate, 180 

concentrated. 190 
arsenous acid. ISO 

and mercuric iodide. 
181 
calcium hydroxide. 181 
chlorinated soda. 187 
chlorine compound. 182 
creasol compound. 182 
ferric chloride. 182 
ferrous chloride, 192 

iodide. 192 
formaldehyde. 148 
gases. 153 

iodine compound. 185 
iron and ammonium ace- 
tate. 183 
lead subacetate. 185 
lime, sulphurated. 191 
magnesium citrate. 185 
mercuric nitrate. 1S4 
oxy chloride. 111 
oxysulphate. 192 
peptonate of iron. 191 
potassium arsenite, 186 

citrate. 186 

hydroxide. 187 
sodium arsenate. 188 

phosphate comp., 188 
subsulphate. 184 
sulphate. 184 
tersulphate. 184 
zinc chloride. 188 
Solutions, ISO 

centinormal. 347 
chemical, 148 
decinormal. 347 
normal. 346. 347 



Solutions, percentage. 154 
saturated. 148 
simple. 148 
volumetric. 346 
Solvents. 352 

immiscible. 153. 352 
separation of, 126 
Soxhlet's extraction apparatus. 

94 
Species. 198 
Specific gravity. 46 

balance. Westphal, 58 
bottle. 47 
flasks. 47 
hydrometers. 51 
of liquids. 47 

in small quanti- 
ties. 50. 63 
loaded cylinder. 57 
Lovi*s beads. 64 
of solids. 60 

heavier than 

water. 60 
lighter thanwater, 

60 
soluble in water, 63 
volume. 64 
Spermaceti in ointments, 268 
Spiral condensers. 93 
Spirits. 225 

of ammonia aromatic, 226 
ether compound. 225 
glonoin. 227 
glyceryl trinitrate, 227 
mindererus, 180 
nitroglycerin. 227 
nitrous ether, 225 
Spiritus. 225 
Sprengel tubes. 50 
Squibb's rhubarb mixture. 202 
specific gravity flask. 48 
upright condenser, 93 
Squill, compound syrup, 216 

vinegar. 219 
Squire's infusion pot, 194 
Starch glvcerite, 310 
Steam bath. 82 

distillation, 89 
Stearates. 265 
Stearins, 281 



420 



INDEX 



Stili, 294 

Stills, Anderson's, 102 

Beck's, 101 

pharmaceutical, 100 

Prentiss', 102, 103 

Remington's, 102, 103 
Stoves, alcohol, 67 

electric, 71 

gas, 68 
Stramonium, fluidextract, 246 

tincture, 235 
Strophanthus, tincture, 235 
Styptic collodion, 258 
Sugar coating for pills, 320 
Suppositoria, 283 
Suppositories, 283 

compressed, 289 

by fusion, 287 

glycerin, 293 

glycerinated gelatin, 292 

by hand, 288 

machines, 289 

moulds, 286 

by pressure, 289 

size and shape, 283 

Wellcome-shaped, 284 

without heat, 289 
Syrupi, 210 
Syrups, 210 

of acacia, 213 

calcium iodide, 217 

lactophosphate, 213 

citric acid, 213 

hvpophosphites compound, 
~215 

iodide of iron, 214 

ipecac, 215 

lime, 214 

phosphates compound, 218 

preparation, 211 

preservation, 212 

rhubarb, aromatic, 216 

rose, 216 

saccharate of iron, 217 

squill compound, 216 

tar, 215 

tasteless iodide of iron, 217 

wild cherry bark, 215 

yerba santa aromatic, 217 
Sweet orange, tincture, 232 



Tabell^e, 329 

Table of extracts, 250 

fluidextracts, 240 
' tinctures, 229 
wines, 220 
Tablets, compressed, 329 

effervescent, 330 

granulation of powder, 
330 

hypodermic, 331, 337 

lubricants for, 331 

machines or compressors, 
332 

moulds, 335 

saturates, 337 

triturates, 334 
Talcum as lubricant for tablets, 

331 
Tar, syrup, 217 
Taraxacum fluidextract, 246 
Tare, 40 

Temperature, constant, 86 
Tenaculum, 108, 109 
Therapeutic classification of 
vehicles, 269 

incompatibilities, 404 
Thermometers, Celsius, 73 

clinical, 75 

Fahrenheit, 73 

Reaumur, 73 
Thermostat, 86 
Tincturse, 228 
Tincture of aconite, 232 

aloes, 232 

belladonna, 232 

benzoin compound, 232 

bloodroot, 235 

calabar bean, 235 

cinchona, 232 

compound, 232 

colchicum seed, 233 

ferric chloride, 233 

hydrastis, 233 

hyoscyamus, 233 

iodine, 233 

lactucarium, 233 

lemon, 234 

nux vomica, 234 



INDEX 



421 



Tincture of opium, 234 
deodorized, 234 

orange, 232 

press, 167 

stramonium, 235 

strophanthus, 235 

vanilla, 235 
Tinctures, 228 

table of, 229 
Torrefaction, 108 
Tragacanth, mucilage, 200 

as pill excipient, 310 
Tralle's hydrometer, 53 
Triticum, fluidextract, 246 
Trituration, 136 

of elaterin, 307 
Triturationes, 306 
Triturations, 306 
Troches, 338 
Trochisci, 338 
Tubes, cutting and bending 

glass, 96 
Twaddell's hydrometer, 55 



Uxguexta, 266 

extensa, 281 
United States Dispensatory, 18 
Committee of Revision, 

18 
Custom house rrydro- 

meter, 54 
pharmacopceial con- 
vention, time of 
meeting, 17 
Universal pill excipient, 312 
Urinometer, 53 



VanilIiA, tincture, 236 
Vaporization, 87 



Vehicles for cerates, 268, 269 

ointments, 269 
Vinegars, 219 
opium, 219 
squill, 219 
Vini, 219 

Volatile oils, assay, 366 

Volumetric analysis, 346 

solutions, 346 

centinormal, 347 
decinormal, 347 
normal, 346 



TV- 
Wafers, 301 
Waters, aromatic, 178 

chlorine, 182 

of decrepitation, 171 

interstitial, 171 

lead, 186 

medicated, 177 

preservation of, 179 
Wax in ointments and cerates, 

268 
Weights, 137, 138, 139, 140 
Wild cherry infusion, 195 

svrup, 215 
Wine, 220", 221 

measure, 25 
Wool fat, use in ointments, 267 



Yerba santa, aromatic svrup, 
217 



Zixc chloride solution, 188 



man 



■ i " ■ 1 






GHH 














*>^ 



